Effect of Music on the Level of Happiness

Effect of Music on the Level of Happiness ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the role of music in increasing the level of happiness of college students. The convenient sample comprised of 120 (sixty men and 60 women) undergraduate students from G.C University, Lahore. Their age range was 17 23 years (M = 20.38, SE =0.11). This study used a 2(Gender) X 3(Music) X 2(Phase X S) mixed factorial design, with gender and type of music as between-subject factors and phase as repeated measures factor. Type of music had three levels, viz., classical, popular and mystical and phase was divided into pre- and posttest measures. After taking informed consent, participants were randomly assigned to the three conditions. Each participant was assigned a computer and was provided with a set of headphones through which they heard the specific kind of music. The Depression Happiness Scale (Joseph and Louis, 1993) scale was administered once before and then after the participants listened to the music. The results of (2 X 3 X 2) mixe d factorial Analysis of Variance and post-hoc Tukey tests revealed that popular music had significantly increased the level of happiness of college students, unlike classical and mystical music. No gender differences were found. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This thesis examines the enhancing effects of music on happiness. Music is the purest form of art. It can be said that it has an impact on almost everyone. Certain pieces of music have a relaxing effect, while others stimulate us to act, and some cause change in or emphasize our mood. This work specifically investigates if listening to different kinds of music can increase the level of happiness or not. 1.1 Defining Music The word music basically comes from the Greek word mousike meaning art of the muses. Technically, all sounds are the result of atmospheric vibrations; however, unlike mere sounds and noises, music consists of a set of sounds with particular frequencies, amplitudes, and timbres which are organized into highly predictable patterns. The Social and Cultural meanings by people turn these sounds into music (Smith, 1989). Culture and social context is very important while defining some construct (Matsumoto Juang, 2008). Thus, the definition of music varies according to culture and social context. The artists may view music as a performing art, a fine art, and an auditory art. According to J. P. F. Richter, Music is the poetry of the air.William Shakespeare called music the food of love, (Galwitz, 2001). Humanistic psychologists view music as a means of self fulfillment, integration and self actualization. For existentialists it is another department of choice and freedom. Music in any form has a universal appeal, like an international language, it is understood and spoken everywhere, and its charm and penetrating power cannot be denied (Malik, 1983). Components of Music Music consists of particular frequencies, amplitudes, and timbres etc which are organized into patterns. (North, Hargreaves Hargreaves, 2004).The components of music are, Musical note is a single sound of definite pitch and duration which can be identified in writing. Rhythm, is the arrangement of sounds in time, this arrangement is a complex arrangement of notes into a mixture of short and long durations within a single bar or a series of bars. Regular pulse groupings are called bars or measures. Rhythm is one of the most central features of many styles of music, especially jazz and hip-hop (Lerdahl Jackendoff, 1983). A Scale is a progression of notes in an ascending or descending order. Melody or tune assembles a series of notes into recognizable musical shapes. The notes of a melody are created with respect to pitch systems such as scales. A melody usually though not necessarily possesses rhythm. The rhythm of a melody is often based on the tones of language, the physical rhythms of dance or just periodic beatings (Narveson, 1984). The beat of a piece of music is its regular pulse, determined by the bar lines by which music are metrically determined. Pitch, is the height or depth of a note in relation to other notes or in relation to an absolute pitch. The absolute pitch has internationally been set at A=400 Hz that is, the A above the middle c has a frequency of 440 cycles or vibrations per second. Pitch is determined by the sounds frequency of vibration. The process of assigning note names to pitches is called tuning. The difference in frequency between two pitches is called an interval. The interval indicates either the doubling or halving of the base frequency (Machlis Kristine, 2007). Harmony is the study of vertical sonorities in music. A vertical sonority refers to considering the relationship between pitches that are together. Harmony can also be implied by melodies that outline a harmonic structure. Larger structures involving multiple pitches are called a chord (Darmschroder Williams, 1990). Harmony in music can be analyzed through Roman numeral system. A system of chord symbols is used in popular and jazz music (Friberg, 1991). Musical texture is the overall sound of a piece of music .It is described as the number of parts or lines and their relationship. The perceived texture of a musical piece can be affected by the interval between each musical line, the timbre of instruments or the number of instruments used. Monophony, homophony and polyphone include musical textures. Monophony is the texture of a melody. The texture of homophony is achieved when a melody is accompanied by chords. The melody in homophony is usually voiced in high notes. Polyphony consists of several simultaneous melodies of equal importance (Temperly, 2001). Form, is a feature of musical theory that explores the concept of musical syntax, on a local and global level. The syntax is often explained in terms of phrases and periods or sections or genre respectively (Juslin Laukka, 2004). 1.1.2 Types of Music Different types of music help in soothing ones disturbed soul and cheer us up. There are various types of music i.e., classical music, rock, hip-hop, folk, opera, mystical etc. Classical music is a complex form of music as it requires high musical skills like learning the ragas and ability to coordinate with other musicians .The one who wants to learn, he/she has to go through proper training in this field of music (Bhattacharyya, 2008). Classical music is different from other types due to its instruments and form. Classical music can be described as of having two kinds, western classical music and eastern classical music. The central norms of western classical music were codified from 1750 to 1820, which is known as the classical period. The major instruments used in western classical music include, the piano, harpsichord, the organ and bagpipes. Western Classical music is also capable of taking on different forms such as, concerto, symphony, sonata, opera, dance music, suite, etude, symphonic poem etc. The composing of classical music aims to instill the music with a complex relationship between the emotional and the intellectual aspects. Classical musicians get extensive training and schooling to attain technical mastery before performing classical music. They understand the principles, and gain the knowledge that is essential for the performance of classical music (Grout et al, 1996). The origin of eastern classical Music was from, the Hindu traditions. The oldest of the scriptures and the Vedas describe music at length. The major instruments used include, the tabla, sitar, sarood, pakhawaj, tanpura, tambura, swarmandal, bansuri and sarangi. The eastern classical music is basically monophonic, and is arranged around a single melody line. The composition based on a particular raga, begins with the performers coming out in a ritualized order, first the drone instruments, then the soloist, then accompanists and percussionists. The musicians first tune their instrument. The tambura is played at a steady tone throughout the raga, by a student of the soloist. The raga begins with the melody being developed gradually. The beginning of the raga is called an alap. Once the raga is established, the ornamentation begins to become rhythmical, which gradually speeds up. This section is the jor. After the jor reaches its climax, everything stops and then finally the percussioni st begins to play while interacting with the soloist. Beginning from India, the classical music tradition has extended towards Pakistan and also Afghanistan. The major vocal forms of eastern classical music include, Dhurpad, which is a style of singing, is accompanied by tempura and pakhawaj. The lyrics are heroic in theme, or otherwise in a praising tone. The, Ghazal originally being Persian in form, exists in multiple variations. The Khayal is an informal form of vocal music. It is partially Improvised and emotional in nature. The Tarana, are songs that are used to convey a mood of elation. They have a few lyrics and are mostly composed of rhythmic sounds. Thumri is an accessible and informal vocal form. The lyrics are typically in a language called braj bhasha, and are usually romantic. The system of notation called sargam holds a very important place in classical music of the east. For eastern classical music, the expertise of voice, rather than the instruments is emphasized (Patnaik, 2006). Popular Music is music belonging to any number of musical styles that are widely popular. It covers mainstream music that does not falls into any specialized style such as jazz or hip hop. Popular music essentially includes the use of instruments such as guitar, violin, fiddle, piano, bass and drums. In these types of music, the bass guitar is an important instrument. This can be used in different intensities to emote feelings of anger, pride and others. As compared to classical music, popular music does not require expertise. Many people play popular music together with their friends, on a casual amateur basis. The roots of the music are found in African American and West African music (Moore, 2004). Mystical music is an outburst of the soul. It comprises of spacious, contemplative, heartfelt, trance inducing and psychedelic sounds. It is a mix of entrancing drones, structures, and rhythms. Mystic music is different from classical music in terms of its lyrical content. The sole theme of Mystical music is of building a connection with God. The singer addresses God as his beloved and tries to gain his acceptance Mystical music makes one explore a kind of rich sound experience that lifts and awakens one above normal consciousness. It is relaxing. Mystic music fulfills the purpose of music which is to help us contact the spiritual dimensions of life and reveal the secret to us and to, keep the spirit alive (Nasr, 1997). An important feature of Pakistani mystical music is the interchanging of gender of the singer. 1.1.3 Effects of Music Music holds a very significant position in our lives since the beginning. From the early beginning to the present day, interest in music with reference to healing and therapeutic experience has sustained (Bartlett, 1996). Researchers have found that about two-thirds of the inner ears cilia resonate only at the higher frequencies that are commonly found in music (3,000 20,000 Hz). This seems to indicate that primitive humans communicated primarily through song or tone. There are references to the divine alliance of music and medicine in classical antiquity and the healing function among primitive people (Schullian Schoen, 1948). Recent work on music has confirmed the effectiveness of music too. Music has been found to be capable of triggering Endorphins in the human body, which help the mind in creating sound images, thus making it possible for people to escape into painless worlds sheltered by their imaginations. Music can regularize or disturb the heart beat or relax or tense the nerves; it is also able to affect digestion, respiration and blood pressure (Tame, 1984). Ansdell (1995) suggested that music could act as a powerful tool with neuro-disability. In many instances it has been found that people with brain related problems were able to function in better ways while being exposed to music (Bunt Hoskyns, 2002). Mc Carty (1999) described how music could reduce negative emotions and increase positive emotions in healthy as well as clinically ill Music can decrease pain and depression while increasing mood and self esteem. A study indicated that tempo affected arousal, while mode of the music affected the mood (Husain, Thompson Schelenburg, 2002). Wellness is a product of healthy body, mind, spirit interactions, and, as a result music can be an important asset in creating the appropriate environment for persons healing (Stewart, 1990). Musics appeal to us is primarily emotional and psychological. Music has been noted for its ability to enhance peoples moods, move them to tears, make them want to rejoice or just move them emotionally in both negative and positive ways (Goldstein, 1980). Radocy and Boyle (1979) suggested eight kinds of affective responses to music. Some are related to an innate sensory perception of the sound whereas; others are related to images, experiences and emotional context of the experiences. These responses may include simple, negative and positive feelings, and moral or religious temperaments. Thus, music is often capable of helping people in dealing with the issues which they have not dealt with earlier in their lives. (Bright, 1993; Levine, 1999; Ortiz, 1997). According to Stewart (1990) music can act as an affective therapeutic agent under the right circumstances. Music can be helpful to us in initiating psychological movement by altering our mental states and leading us towards more positive affirmations (Blaking, 1990). Menuhin (1972) revealed further that music can bring order out of chaos, because rhythm makes the divergent unanimous, melody turns the disjointed into continuous, and harmony is capable of imposing compatibility among the incongruous. Sloboda (1989), states that, most of us take part in musical activities because it can arouse deep and significant emotions in us. The music itself cannot have extra musical meaning unless the experience to which it refers already exists in the mind of the listener. When music is similar to the connections with human life, then people experience intense emotions. Particular kinds of music are capable of moving painful memories or the unresolved problem in life. Storr (1990) believes that apart from the relations between seeing an emotional arousal, the relation between hearing and emotional arousal is stronger. Campbell Angus (1976), in a study observed that when people communicate with the emotional centers of our being through the use of music; we become better able to reduce stress and achieve a sense of well-being. Diamond (1979) suggests that music can be used as an important part of primary preventative health care at a psychosocial level. It has been reported that music is an activity which the healthy, impaired, talented and interested enjoy, because it provides them with a relief from their stress, anxiety (Blacking, 1995). Music if combined with personal attention and, can provide satisfaction and restore a sense of value to people who may be feeling depressed or low in self-esteem (Crystal, Grober Masur, 1989). In view of Hallan Price (1998), calming music led to better participant performance on arithmetic and memory tasks. Music can line up patterns of emotions, structures of consciousness and / or psychic energy (Stewart, 1990). Thus, music has great influences on a listener. It can take the mind and body to do spontaneous things. Depending on the type of music and the inner message it has, music can influence a person and his/her actions (Cassidy Byo, 2008). Happiness In this older sense, Happiness was used to translate the Greek Eudemonia. There has been a surge of interest in Positive Psychology during the last quarter of this century. There has been a huge amount of interest and research on happiness, well-being and satisfaction among all positive fields (Diener Diener, 1995). The term happiness is synonymous to subjective well- being (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Happiness can be defined as a feeling about yourself and the outside world. It is born from the internal workings of our own minds (Diener et all, 1997). Yew-Kwan Ng and Siang Ng (2000), define happiness as a complete state of mental health. They have defined emotional happiness as the presence of positive affect and life satisfaction with the absence of negative affect. It is a positive emotional state that is defined by every person on a subjective level. Diener, Scolon Lueas (2003) define Happiness as an overall appraisal of life, where the good and the bad are balanced. According to one of the founders of positive psychology, Seligman (2002), happiness consists of positive emotions and positive activities, emotions can be categorized as they are related to the past, present and future. Positive emotions concerning the past include satisfaction, contentment, pride and serenity whereas, positive emotions that are associated with the future include optimism, hope and trust. Veenhoven (1997) has defined happiness or subjective well-being as the degree to which one judges the quality of his life favorably. According to Schwartz Strack (1999), even very minor incidents in life can affect the level of happiness; however, Kahneman Schkade (1998), state that external circumstances are have little effect on happiness or subjective well- being. Theories of happiness The basic theories of happiness have been divided into two types, Top down theory Bottom up theory Bottom-Up Theory: Happiness and satisfaction depend on the sum of many smaller pleasures and happy moments (Diener Scwartz, 1984). In the perspective, of the bottom-up theory, well- being or happiness is a summing up of the positive experiences in a persons life. The assessment of satisfaction is considered in a small number of lifes domains. According to this theory, people self-rate their subjective well being with the help of a variety of external circumstances. The frequency of the pleasant moments makes a person happier. These circumstances may include the level of ones marriage, income work and family etc (Linley, Joseph Seligman, 2004). In this view, the objective life experiences, postulate the overall happiness. Top-Down Theory: The other perspective assumes that happiness is more related to general tendency to assess and infer to experiences in a positive way. From this point of view, a person brings tendencies of positivity towards the situations that he encounters. This view to subjective well being is known as top-down theory. This approach is mostly considered by observing personality traits or attitudes (Linley, Joseph Seligman, 2004). This theory states that people, who are over all satisfied with life, are satisfied with everything. People possess a disposition to judge lifes experiences in negative of positive ways. There are also other models of happiness which include, Need/goal satisfaction model, Process/activity model, Genetic/personality predisposition models. Psychoanalytic and humanistic theorists believe that reduction in tension and satisfaction of needs lead to the achievement of happiness. It was theorized that people were happy as they had achieved their goals (Compton, 2005). Emmons Diener (1986) has also emphasized how pursuing goals generates happiness. According to the process/activity theorists, participating in activities generates happiness. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) proposed that people who indulge in interesting and challenging activities, and experience the feelings of flow, as a result, are happier. The genetic/personality theorists view happiness as a stable construct. A Research by Costa and McCrae (1986) suggested that happiness is based on personality and genetics. Similarly, Lucas (1996) also found in a research that personality traits were closely related to happiness. Most of recent researches agree with idea of happiness being a combination of psychological, emotional, and physical well-being. Correlates of Happiness Individual differences in the levels of happiness have their significance, but studies have shown that predictors of happiness can be indicated and generalized. Evidence has been found that environmental factors and happiness can be correlated. However, it was also found that demographic variables, together account for less than 20% variance in happiness or subjective well- being (Campbell et al., 1976). A study by (Suhail Chaudary, 2003) found that work satisfaction, social support, religious affiliation, social class, income level, and marital status and marital satisfaction can be the predictors of happiness. Marital status and satisfaction: It has been found that marriage and happiness correlate significantly. Diener, Suh, Lucas, Smith (1999), found that unmarried people who cohabit with their partners are significantly happier in a few cultures. Research has shown that married people are happier as compared to unmarried, divorced, separated or widowed people. Shields Wooden (2003) found that married women and men were consistently happier than unmarried men and women. Finances: Financial status is related to happiness; however with an increase the effect diminishes (Diener, Diener Carol, 1995). Veenhoven (1994), stated that People of third world countries relate their happiness more to wealth. Evidence shows that relationship between happiness and wealth depends on the value that one associates with money (Burroughs, James Rindflisch, 2002). 3) Health: Physical health is strongly related to levels of happiness. If one is physically healthy he/she would have higher levels of happiness as compared to a person who is sick. Ryan Deci (2001) found that perceptions of health have more effect on happiness than objective health. If one is healthy (physically), then one experiences a feeling of well- being (Feist, Bodner, Jacobs, Miles Tan, 1995). According to physicians, Brief, Butcher, George Link (1993) a strong correlation exists between happiness and health. 4) Gender: women have been generally found to report higher levels of subjective well- being or happiness. Fujita, Diener Sandvick (1991) reported that women showed greater capacity for joy. Similarly, in a study by Wood, Rhodes Whelan (1989), it was found that women report slightly higher levels of happiness. However, Shayam and Yadev (2006) found that elderly men scored higher on well-being as compared to elderly women. In a study by Pennebaker, Rime Blankenship (1996), women expressed more intense emotions then men. Women also rated themselves as more verbally expressive than men. 5) Education: education does affect the happiness of people positively. Layard (2005), found that education is capable of increasing happiness indirectly, as it effects the ability to earn. Education has greater affect on the happiness levels of people with lower incomes (Campbell et al, 1976).Education appears to have only small direct influence on happiness. Life Events: Peak experiences have been found to be due to religion music or other intense activities. Diener Lucas (1999), state that subjective well-being correlates with friendship activities, having frequency of occurrence. The number of positive events correlates with positive affect (Schimmack, Diener Oishi 2002). Heady Wearing (1989) found that areas of friendship and work, increase happiness. 7) Culture: Diener Suh (1999) found that some nations appear to be more emotional than other nations. It was also found that happiness varies with interpersonal trust of people (Diener Suh, 2000). It was found that people in individualistic cultures had higher subjective well-being as compared to collectivistic cultures (Ball, 2001). 8) Religion: Many researches support that people who are religious tend to be happier. Studies have found that engagement in religious activities is significantly related to higher well-being (Donahue Benson, 1995). Peacock and Poloma (1999) found that ones perceived closeness to God was a very strong predictor of happiness. 1.3 Literature Review Immense research has been done to investigate the effects of music on physical as well as mental health. Researches have found that music has made positive influences on the physiological, psychological and the social domains. In a study, Fratianne, Prensner, Huston, Super, Yowler Standley (2001), conducted a study on patients at a burn care centre and found that the group which received the music therapy intervention, reported significant reduction in pain, compared to the groups having no music therapy. This conformed that music therapy is a valuable non-invasive intervention for the treatment of pain after burn injury. Nering (2002), in an experimental study investigated the effect of piano and music instruction on intelligence of monozygotic twins. Post-tests on the Wechsler standardized intelligence tests indicated that, that music instruction through individual piano lessons increased intelligence. Weinberger Norman (1998) conducted research to investigate if music is capable of improving brain development. They found that music not only improves our brain development, it even enhances skills like reading and mathematics. Music promotes social development, self -worth, personality adjustment, and also enhances creativity. It was also found that music making provides the most all-embracing exercise for brain cells and the synaptic interconnections. A study on the effect of music therapy in treatment of social isolation in visually impaired children was conducted. It discussed how that music therapy can be helpful in making the child explore his environment, and modify stereotypic, autistic-like behaviours, and encourage social awareness and interaction with other children. The results indicated that Music evokes profound responses without the help of words and therefore, can reach children with the severest disabilities (Gourgey, 1998). In another experimental study on the effect of music, Hallman, Price, and Katsarou (2002), found that calming music led to better participant performance on an arithmetic task and a memory task than no music. It was also found that background music on cognitive test performance led to improved performance when compared with a control condition (Cockerton, Tracey, Moore, Simon, Norman Dale, 1997). A study by Rideout Taylor (1997), involved 16 female and 16 male undergraduates, who completed two equivalent spatial tests, Results indicated that exposure to classical music, given to undergraduate students caused a small but significant improvement in spatial tests. In a study entitled, Music therapy for adolescents, Tervo (2001), suggested that music makes adolescents become expressive, be in contact with and share among themselves feelings of anger, rage, grief, longing and psychological disintegration. It provides opportunities to feel closeness or isolation and to explore sexual fantasies and feelings. Standley Hughes (1997) evaluated the effects of music sessions which were designed to enhance pre-reading and writing skills of 24 children (aged 4-5 yrs). The children were enrolled in Early Intervention and Exceptional Student Education (ESE) programs. The music treatment was provided along with the regular prekindergarten course. Pre and post-tests revealed that music significantly improved print concepts and prewriting skills of the children. A study by Chalmers, Olson Zurkowski (1999) examined the effect of music on lunchroom noise level and on the behaviours of children requiring intervention. The playing of classical music indicated that the noise level dropped to an average of six decibels, whereas, upon playing popular music the noise level decreased by ten decibels. In both conditions, music was capable of decreasing behavioral interventions. Covington (2001) stated that, many patients with psychiatric disorders struggle with poor skills in coping, socialization, communication, and self-expression which leads to dysfunctional cognitive, behavioral, and emotional responses. It was found that therapeutic music offers a noninvasive approach which helps in strengthening the skills and effect behavior change. Ming (2002) explored the Anxiety, Depression and self- esteem of undergraduates. The study examined the effects of music therapy on anxiety, depression and self-esteem of undergraduates. Twenty-four undergraduates showing greater anxiety and depression with lower self-esteem were assigned to experimental and control groups. The experimental group was provided twenty hours of music therapy, unlike the control group which did not receive any treatment. Quantitative and qualitative analyses indicated that the experimental group showed a reduction in anxiety immediately after the music therapy, the group expressed that they experienced more positive changes, including more pleasure, relaxation, and confidence, and less negative emotions. Chlan Linda (1998) investigated the effectiveness of a music therapy intervention on relaxation and anxiety for patients receiving ventilatory assistance. They used mystical music as music therapy. Mystical music therapy was found to be effective in decreasing anxiety and promoting relaxation. Decrease in heart and respiratory rate was also found. In another research, Smith and Noon (1998) investigated mood change induced by contemporary music. When analysis was done, it was found that all the pieces of music produced an overall change in mood. Popular/independent music produced highly significant changes. Ostertag (2002), in his article on music therapy with abused children stated that music therapy can play a very important part in the change process of abused children, specially while addressing emotional and relationship issues which are difficult to address using the cognitive or behavioural treatment models. Hendricks (2001), in his study on the use of music therapy techniques in a group for the treatment of adolescent depression, stated that one in five adolescents is effected by depression, which results in substance abuse, anorexia nervosa, poor academic performance and adolescent pregnancy. He investigated the use of music in a school setting for the treatment of adolescent depression. The pre and post test scores showed that the use of music therapy techniques positively correlated with reduced depression increased self-concept in the participants. In a study, Labbà ©, Schmidt, Babin Pharr (2007), conducted a study using a sample of 15 males and 41 female college students. They were exposed to classical and relaxing music after experiencing a stressful test. It was found that listening to classical and relaxing music after exposure to a stressor resulted in significant reductions in anxiety, anger, and sympathetic nervous system arousal, and increase in relaxation when compared to listening to heavy metal music or sitting in silence. In a study titled, An experience sampling study of emotional reactions to music: Listener, music, and situation, Juslin, Liljestrà ¶m, Và ¤stfjà ¤ll, Barradas, Silva (2008), investigated the prevalence of different musical emotions and how such emotions are related to various factors in th

Nationalism and the origins of The first world war Essay

When global war broke out in 1914 dreams of world peace and prosperity were shattered. Accordingly, the First World War was arguably one of the most traumatic episodes in the history of international affairs. Geopolitically speaking, the First World War (also described as WWI in this essay) was unprecedented in both scale and sheer loss of human life. Never before had the world witnessed such carnage and violence perpetuated through the use of modern technology. The First World War touched much of the world and the implications of this conflict reverberated across the globe. Seeking to understand the historical explanations as well as the role that nationalism played in the outbreak of the First World War, this essay will explore the multiple causes of the development of global hostilities in 1914. Using a three pronged analytical model, the causes of the WWI will be discusses with reference to the pre-conditions and precipitants for conflict and the triggers which sparked the war. Understanding that WWI was an international event with global repercussions, we will analyze the various antecedents for the emergence of armed conflict through a multi-causal approach. This essay will argue that a variety of factors led to the outbreak of the First World War and while there is not one single causal explanation for the emergence of global conflict in 1914, a proper explanation of the origins of this conflict takes into account the amalgamation of each of these factors. While nationalism was an important factor leading to the outbreak of international conflict between the warring parties, this essay will argue that in fact, nationalism was an important precursors to the emergence of conflict but the sole and deciding force in the violence which erupted on the shores of Europe and reverberated across the planet. Although the First World War has recently been overshadowed in the aftermath of the WWII, this conflict was the first in terms of scale and sheer destruction and thus continues to be worthy of scholarly analysis. Nationalism in International Affairs Nationalism is an important force in international relations and has been so for centuries. As a basic principle of the international order, concepts of state sovereignty are intrinsic to our understanding of the world system. Accordingly, the international system is predicated upon the existence of nation-states and nationalism is a belief or sense of identity within the nation. The Treaty of Westphalia established the principle of state sovereignty, another fundamental principle of the international order which established the nation-state as an autonomous political entity. Similar to tribalism or a sense of social kinship, nationalism as a potent political force began in Europe in the late eightieth century and was connected with a decline in overall religiosity, the development of industrialization, Enlightenment thoughts and a concerted effort by political elites to â€Å"build states†. By inculcating a sense of nationalist fervor in the citizens of their respective countries, elites have been able to manipulate nationalism for political purposes. Mass mobilization towards a variety of specific causes through an appeal to nationalist sentiment has been used as a political tool for centuries. Although not exclusively a negative force, nationalism remains an important ordering principle of the international system and a force to be reckoned with (Anderson 2006). Preconditions to the Outbreak of Conflict There were a variety of preconditions to the emergence of the conflict, which up until that date, had been the largest that the world had ever seen. The First World War represented the dueling alliances of the Triple Entente – composed of Britain, France and Russia – and the Triple Alliance – comprised of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Pre-conditions are best described as the precursors to conflict and there were many underlying long-term causes for the belligerent behaviour of the states of Europe in 1914. An arms race, underway for years, and growing at a rapid pace just prior to the emergence of the First World War set the stage for violent conflict between the major states of the region. Accordingly, the arms race occurring at the time exacerbated the global balance of power and led to an increased likelihood of aggressive behavior between the armies of Europe. As the European armies grew and competed with one another for size, manpower and prestige, the naval race between German and Britain contributed to a partition of the major states of the continent into two opposing camps. Competition was surely facilitated by nationalist tendencies and a desire to counterbalance the political, diplomatic and military ambitions of one’s rival. In addition to international arms races, domestic pressures and a willingness of the part of the citizens of some countries to engage in war helped precipitate the conflict. Accordingly, the diplomatic isolation of Germany, Austro-Hungary was another important contributor to the outbreak of global war in 1914. German nationalism, largely ignored in the settlement of the Congress of Vienna almost one hundred years before, did experience a resurgence particularly after the imposition of what was then conceived by many to be an unfair Treaty in Vienna and gained prominence in the middle to late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. Accordingly, a German nationalism movement led a revolution to unify the country in 1871 – a similar movement in Italy served to unite that country in 1861 – and remained an important, although not solely important, force in attempting to explain the preconditions of conflict in 1914 (Joll and Martel 1992). In addition to the pre-conditions above, a series of crises from 1904-1914 also helped pave the way for the emergence of the First World War and were important pre-cursors to this conflict. The First Moroccan Crisis from 1905-1906 resulted in a German offensive which created the Entente. This was followed by the Bosnia-Herzegovina Crisis of 1908/1909 in which Austria-Hungary formally annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina. This important precursor to future conflict forced Russia to reevaluate its geopolitical situation and in turn view Germany and Austro-Hungary as a potential threat. The Second Moroccan Crisis (1911-1912) united Russia, Britain and France against Germany and was an important stabilizer for the Triple Entente informal alliance. The final conflicts which were important pre-conditions to the outbreak of violence in 1914 were the Balkan Wars 1912-13. These series of wars removed the Ottoman Empire from the equation and led to an impressive German arms build-up (Strachan 2001; Joll and Martel 1992). On the Cusp of War: Precipitants to Conflict Precipitants are short-term crises that made the war seem inevitable and a series of crises, beginning with the assassination in Sarajevo of Franz-Ferdinand, Archduke of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, made large-scale war in Europe seem like an inevitability. In fact, the months of late June/early July were replete with crises beginning with the violent assassination in Serbia of the Archduke of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Assassinated on Serbia’s national day by a violent terrorist organization, the Black Hand, this event alone is described by many observers of the First World War as perhaps the most monumental precipitant to the outbreak of hostilities between the major powers of Europe. Following his violent death at the hands of a Serbian nationalist, Germany unilaterally supported the right of the Austro-Hungarian Empire to respond as it saw fit. This led to successive increases in belligerence on both sides and an ultimatum by Austria-Hungary to Serbia (Strachan 2001; Joll and Martel 1992). Triggers and the Outbreak of War There are a variety of direct antecedents to the War of 1914 and the following will describe the important triggers for the world’s largest military mobilization to-date in the aftermath of the assassination of Franz-Ferdinand, Archduke of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. While there is not one single event which explains the emergence of large-scale conflict, the following will chart the important triggers which led to the internationalization of conflict and the explosion of a truly global war. Serbia’s rejection of the ultimatum put forth by the Austro-Hungarian represented a desire on its part to safeguard its independence. By rejecting the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum and seeking Russian support, the Serbian republic unwittingly set the stage for the bloodiest war the world had ever known. Serbian intransigence and refusal to acquiesce to the demands of Austria-Hungary set the stage for Russian involvement which internationalized the conflict and significantly increased its scope. At the time, the Russian army was the largest army on the planet and the inclusion of Russia into the dispute significantly increased its scope and explosive potential. Following the introduction of Russia into the equation, the first four days of August 1914 proved to significantly expand the horizons of the conflict. During those first few days of the month, Germany declared war on Russia and its ally France, leading to the mobilization of Britain and the further internationalization of belligerence. Germany’s decision to declare war on Russia and the Entente powers represented an important expansion of the conflict on the side of the Triple Alliance and set the stage for the mobilization and later involvement of Britain in the brewing hostilities (Strachan 2001; Joll and Martel 1992). Origins of the â€Å"Mass War† and Nationalism At the outbreak of World War One, states mobilized what scholars have described as â€Å"mass wars†: the uniquely modern phenomenon of warfare developed in the twentieth century which required the wholesale diversion of economies, labour and national productivity towards the war effort (44). Accordingly, â€Å"from 1914 on, wars were unmistakably mass wars†¦such a level of mass mobilization cannot be maintained except by a modern high-productivity industrialized economy. † (Hobsbawm 1994). State apparatuses grew and â€Å"mass wars† required governments to mobilize people, resources, and armaments to serve the war effort. Citizens were conscripted to fight, industry was instructed to produce arms, and the government became intimately involved in the establishment of monopolistic war economies. Although nationalism did play a role in the establishment of war economies and the growth of military-industrial complexes built up to support the war effort, many factors account for call to arms and the descent into extreme bloodshed and violence during the First World War. Mass mobilization towards the war effort was certainly helped by nationalist fervor as the belligerent parties prepared for conflict which until then would have been on an unimaginable scale, but as has been shown above, nationalism is just one part of the equation in attempting to explain the origins of the First World War (Hobsbawm 1994). Concluding Remarks As one of the most traumatic episodes in the history of the world, the First World War represented geopolitical conflict on an unprecedented scale. Never before had the world witnessed such carnage, bloodshed and violence. Seeking to understand the historical explanations and discuss the role that nationalism has played in the outbreak of the First World War, this essay has explored the antecedents for conflict in 1914. Important preconditions, precipitants and triggers have accounted for the emergence of this conflict. Nationalism, although an important factor which can help explain the emergence of World War One, is actually only one aspect of the overall conditions which lay the groundwork for World War One. Nationalism may be a guiding principle of the international order but a focus which exclusively explores the role of nationalism in the causes of war gives an incomplete picture of this global conflict. While nationalism may have been a force in the establishment of alliances in Europe, there were a handful of other preconditions, precipitants and triggers which led to this conflict. As this essay has shown, many factors led to the violent episode now known as the Second World War and while each factor differed in substance, each contributed to the emergence of the â€Å"War to End All Wars†. REFERENCES Anderson, B. 2006. Imagined Communities. New York: Verso. Hobsbawm, E. 1994. Age of Extremes: The Short History of the Twentieth Century: 1914-1991. London: Abacus. James Joll, J. and G. Martel. 1992. The Origins of the First World War. New York: Longman. McEvedy, C. 2003. The New Penguin Atlas of History. New York: Penguin. Strachan, H. 2001. The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War. London: Oxford University Press.

Their Eyes Were Watching God - 2014 Words

In the opening paragraphs of Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God, the narrator writes, â€Å"Ships at a distance have every man’s wish on board.† For Men, these wishes â€Å"sail forever on the horizon, never out of sight, never landing until the Watcher turns his eyes away in resignation, his dreams mocked to death by time.† For women, â€Å"the dream is the truth† (Houston 1), then they act and do things accordingly. Jay Gatsby in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby and Janie Crawford in Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God both have a cherished aspiration unfulfilled that caused a void in their life when that dream was not realized. Indeed, despite the strong human yearning to fulfill a dream, not everyone can achieve†¦show more content†¦Janie refuses to believe that love does not accompany marriage. After two unhappy unions, she remains committed to the idea that she will find true love in the future. She realizes after Joe’s death that she will go off down the road in search of people, not materialistic possessions. â€Å"Here Nanny had taken the biggest thing God ever made, the horizon. She hated the old woman who had twisted her so in the name of love† (Hurston 89). Janie blames Nanny for planting a distorted view of love in her mind. Nanny was nearly successful in taking Janie’s dream for love from her, forcing Janie to separate herself from Nanny in order to reach her dream. The journey to achieve what one wants to become will at times be suspended due to others attempting to persuade another to take a different course in direction. Unlike others, Janie is not influenced by Nanny and remains persistent on what she wants. Jay Gatsby also has a distorted view of love and how to achieve it. This distorted view leads him to accumulate wealth and woo Daisy with materialistic possessions, hoping it would win her over from Tom Buchanan. Gatsby’s car is representative of his success. â€Å"It was a rich cream color, bright and there in its monstrous length...† (Fitzgerald 64). Nick continues to describe Gatsby’s car as being extravagant and grandeur. Gatsby attempts to flaunt his riches in an effort to appeal to Daisy’s desire for a

William Shakespeare s Twelfth Night - 1336 Words

At first glance, twins may seem identical, but many would argue that they behave differently with uniquely hardwired brains. In William Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night, two main characters Viola-Cesario and Sebastian are lost in a shipwreck, but later reunite with each other and along their journey, confuse many other characters while mixing one another up. Viola-Cesario and Sebastian are twins who look very similar in appearance, but nevertheless they are actually two opposite characters with different attitudes and characteristics which shape their unique behavior. For instance, Sebastian and Viola-Cesario behave differently from each other since Sebastian is an aggressive person and Viola-Cesario is a peaceful person. However, considering†¦show more content†¦I am one that had rather go with sir priest than sir knight. I care not who knows so much of my mettle.† (3.4. 248-50). Viola-Cesario demonstrates that she is a compassionate person because she tries to rect ify the situation peacefully rather than with violence. The fact that Viola-Cesario is actually a girl who is in disguise as a man and is surrendering from a duel in unusual in the play. This is because men are generally known to be aggressive and fearless to relinquish from a duel, but Viola-Cesario portrays an exceptional amount of courage to stand up for herself instead of fighting. Also, in Act 5, Scene 1, Sebastian attacks Sir Andrew and Sir Toby aggressively. They believe Sebastian to be Viola-Cesario as they think that he is peaceful and unwilling to fight, but they are unfortunately wrong: â€Å"The Count’s gentleman, one Cesario. We took him for a coward, but he’s the very devil incardinate.† (5.1. 174-750). Sebastian portrays that he is an aggressive person because he fiercely attacks Sir Andrew and Sir Toby like the devil and leaves them in critical condition. Sir Andrew says that Sebastian is the â€Å"very devil incardinate† because he attac ks them without mercy which resembles the appearance of the devil. Viola-Cesario and Sebastian’s actions show the reader that one persona is nonviolent while other is ruthless,

Relationship Analysis Paper - 1603 Words

[Your Name] [Professor’s Name] [Course Name and Number] [Date of Submission] Relationship Analysis Paper Introduction A number of well-thought out socio-culture proverbs, which highlight the cultural values of mankind by spotting on the fact that the quality of life lies within the quality of relationships we have, actually refer to the depths of social associations that the masses possess and extract out the true essence of human life in relation to the social surroundings humans are engrossed with. This reveals that a true relationship is when one loves for the sake of loving and not for achieving some desired outcomes. Love is all about selflessness and relationships are all about nurturing true feelings of esteem and†¦show more content†¦it supports objectivity over subjectivity (Casmir 245). I do believe that in relationships between two people, the aspect that oversees whether or not the field will show up synergy or destructive disorder is the acuity of power and control (Prince and Logan-Price 3). Whenever I and my son Jack receive transmissions from each other, we should first scan those the threats which deepen the gaps by all means as if we can manage to generate a field which is optimistic and healthy rather than pessimistic or negative; then we can listen to each other’s perceptions and can avoid ineffective listening which ultimately leads to conceptual clashes. The second theory, the social exchange theory, is an ilk of the cause and effect theory which focuses on the consequences of any behavioral conduct. If jack and I take care of our communicational conducts by making the most of this theory, we can get rid of many relational disagreements. Now the third theory of communicational relationships, social system theory, emphasizes to sustain the dignity of the social structure by avoiding various unlawful and psychotic conducts (Casmir 250). In accordance with these three theories, I firmly believe that â€Å"Truly creative individuals are those who succeed, against all pressures of instinct andShow MoreRelatedA Paper Work of Customer Relationship Management of Tesco, and an Analysis of Consumer Behaviour, Business Environment and Pestel .4053 Words   |  17 PagesABSTRACT This study explored the customer relationship management of Tesco. Tesco is the leading retailer in UK. It manages over a thousand supermarkets, hypermarkets, and convenience stores in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Central Europe and Asia. 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Textbook Analysis Free Essays

string(73) " use the information that is already given, but using one’s own words\." University of Latvia Faculty of Humanities Department of English Studies Textbook Analysis 3rd year, group B student Kristaps Briedis Riga 2013 Introduction The â€Å"Focus on Advanced English C. A. E. We will write a custom essay sample on Textbook Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now † is written by Sue O’Connell and first published in Pearson Education Limited at the Edinburgh Gate, Harlow in year 1999, and the edition at hand is the thirteenth impression printed in 2006. The textbook is oriented for students preparing for the Cambridge Certificate in Advanced English examination. Further, the analysis of syllabus will be based on the material given in the revised and updated edition of the â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † The whole text book consists of 240 pages. It includes fourteen units, which are divided according to different topics (e. g. Severe Weather, Time Eaters, Stress etc. ). Each unit of the â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † is devoted to the development of all language skills: reading, writing, listening, speaking. Moreover, there are grammar and vocabulary tasks in each unit. One unit from the â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † (Unit 12 â€Å"Living Dangerously†) was chosen for the analysis of the whole book, because each unit is devoted to the development of all language skills and thus, it is enough to analyze only one of them in order to understand how the whole book â€Å"works†. Reading Reading can be defined as the process of constructing meaning from written texts (Online 1). Thus, learning reading skills means understanding the text what one reads. But why do we need to understand what we read? According to Harmer (2001:200), there are two types of reasons for reading. The first is instrumental reason, which means that people read because it helps him/her to achieve particular goal (e. g. people read road signs in order to know where to go). The other type is called pleasurable. That means that the reason for reading some particular text is to get pleasure (e. g. reading illustrated cartoon). Thus, it does not matter what reason the student has, it is important for him/her to practice reading skills. Unit 12 of the â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † offers the students two reading exercises. The first text is the magazine article called â€Å"Living Dangerously. † It contains about 400 words and is divided into 8 paragraphs. There is a pre-reading exercise, which students should do before reading the main text. The pre-reading exercises motivate the students and encourage their involvement in the topic and theme of the text (Online 2). After doing a pre-reading and a while-reading activity, students are asked to fill the gaps in the article choosing the proper paragraph (from A-G) given after the text. In order to achieve a general understanding of a text, the students do extensive reading, which includes scanning (a quick reading, focusing on locating specific information) and skimming (a quick reading to know how the passage is organized and to get an idea of the intention of the writer) (Online 3). Finally, the post-reading exercise is given to check how the students have understood the text and to develop their critical thinking. In this exercise the students are asked to find given expressions in the text and work out the meaning of them from the context (e. g. ested interest might mean a personal stake or involvement in an undertaking or situation). As the second task, a newspapers article â€Å"You are caught in a fire then what? † is given. It is about two times longer than previous article (about 800 words). Firstly, students are asked to scan the text (to read it quickly) in order to be able to answer some questions in pre-reading activity (e. g. Who devised the Su rvival Game and why? ). Then, students should read the article more carefully in order to do the following post-reading exercise. This type of exercise is different from the first one. In the second case students have to answer multiple choice questions. There are 6 questions with 4 answers in each. Some advantages of this type of exercises are the following: multiple choice exercises require less time than some written tasks, it is considered to be more objective than a usual written task, and â€Å"it will allow assessing one’s knowledge without taking into account all the irrelevant factors† (Online 4). Writing Writing is said to be a method of representing language in visual or tactile form (Online 5). And more important it is a skill of marking coherent words on paper and composing text (Online 6). There are many reasons why writing is important, for example, the ability to express one’s thoughts and ideas, communicative competence (letters), also it serves as a record, as in expressing one’s ideas for future references (Online 6). There are different types of writing – writing to inform, educational writing, writing to entertain, persuasive writing and motivational writing (Online 7). To improve writing skills there are some essential instructions that need to be performed – research, think, organize, write, edit, revise, relax (Online 7). Two writing exercises are included into the unit 12 of the â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † The first exercise is writing an article (~250 words) about an interesting adventure. The textbook has a good approach to the writing tasks as it provides a ‘Task Checklist’, where there are several guideline questions concerning format and approach, content and organization, style and the target reader, for example, ‘Who are the magazine readers? ’ or ‘What language features are needed for this content? ’. Also the textbook provides a ‘Writing File’, where the features of different types of writing – formal and informal letters, articles, reports, reviews and so on – are shown. The second part of the exercise is the involvement of some structures in the article in order to emphasize or add some dramatic effect, for example, writing sentences using inversion (a reversal of normal word order) or cleft structure (A construction in which some element in a sentence is moved from its normal position into a separate clause to give it greater emphasis) (Online 8). The second exercise on writing consists of writing a memo (~50 words) and a report (~200 words) about the security in collage. The essential part in this task is to use the information that is already given, but using one’s own words. You read "Textbook Analysis" in category "Papers" The task also has a ‘Task Checklist’ with the guideline questions and indication to the ‘Writing File’ and also includes the explanation and tips on writing a memo. â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † aim is based on covering different types of writing. The Unit 12 included persuasive writing (writing a memo), which improves the skills of argumentation (Online 7), and informative writing (writing an article). The tasks are well organized and easy to understand, they provide comprehensible instructions and also some tips for writing the given type of the text. Additionally there is a supplement, where the features of the different types of texts are enclosed, so it is easy for a student to rapidly find the necessary information. Listening Listening is the ability to accurately receive messages in the communication process (Online 9). Listening is not an easy process because the listener should concentrate and understand everything what he/she hears on the spot. It is impossible for the listener to adjust the pace of speech, listen again or check an unknown word. In addition, listening is not the same as hearing as listening means paying attention to not only what is being told, but also to the manner how it is being told. According to the statistics, adults spend approximately 70% of time communicating, while approximately 45% of the time spent on communication is listening (Online 9). After a short explanation on what is listening and why it is so important in everyday communication, it is essential to look how listening is taught in schools. The textbook under analysis provides mostly two (in some units – one) listening tasks in each unit. According to Rost (2002), listening tasks can be divided into three phases: pre-listening, while-listening and post-listening. This division is not always present in the textbook because in quite many of the tasks pre-listening or post-listening is missing. Pre-listening and post-listening are very important because pre-listening is like a warm-up for while-reading as it ‘activates the background knowledge and  integrates  the directions of listening’ (Helgesen, 1998), while post-reading ‘allows the learner to build mental representations and develop shortterm second language memory, and increase motivation for listening a second time’ (Rost, 2002). The textbook presents such pre-reading tasks as questions on the theme and vocabulary related exercises. In Unit 12 two vocabulary related exercises are offered as lead-in tasks into the following istening tasks as well as into the whole unit and theme. All while-listening tasks are divided into four different types or parts (as they are called in the book). In parts 1 and 2 a monologue or sometimes a dialogue can be heard. The task type used in these parts is mostly filling in the gaps. The students are tested for ability of hearing specific information (or bot tom-up listening), which, according to Helgesen (1998), is similar to scanning. He writes that listening to specific information is difficult as students ‘try to catch everything, often taking the time to mentally translate it into their mother tongue’ (Helgesen, 1998). A longer recording of a discussion or conversation can be heard in the part 3. The student’s ability of understanding the text as a whole (or top-down listening), including the gist and specific information, is tested in this part. The task types are filling in the gaps, sentence completion and four-option multiple choice questions. In part 4 five short extracts can be heard. Students are asked to identify the situation or topic, the manner and the attitude of speaking, the goal of the speaker or specific information. The task types are multiple matching or three-option multiple choice questions. The while-listening texts are in the form of formal and informal conversations, public announcements and private messages. The while-listening tasks in Unit 12 are of parts 1 and 3. Both exercises are filling in the gaps, and the recording can be heard twice in each of them. The few post-reading tasks are mostly questions on the theme, for example, the task in Unit 12 asks to imagine yourself in the situation connected with the previously heard text and discuss what you would do yourself, which is quite creative and interesting post-reading exercise. Most of the tasks are one-way as ‘all input comes from an outside source (like a videotape) to the learner’ not from outside, for example, a speaking partner (Rost, 2002). In addition, the listening sub-skills, such as skimming, scanning, note-taking, understanding attitudinal and conceptual meanings, understanding unfamiliar lexical items through context, understanding relationships within the sentence, also are taught in the textbook (Online 10). Speaking Speaking is  the delivery of language through the mouth (Online 11). Speaking skills enable learners to enter the community of the target language (Kramina, 2000: 86). This vocalized form of language usually requires at least one listener (of course, some people talk to themselves! ) – speech can flow naturally from one person to another in the form of dialogue, or it can also be planned and rehearsed, as in the delivery of a speech or presentation (Online 11). According to Kramina (2000), to act as a speaker participating in the communicative process, the learner must be able to carry out a sequence of skilled actions which comprise: cognitive, linguistic, and phonetic skills. There are speaking tasks throughout the textbook under analysis that help practice and enhance those skills. There are four parts to the speaking tasks in â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † each focusing on different speaking skills and sub-skills. Part 1 focuses on general social language – general social English and the ability to interact with other people in English. Part 2 focuses on transactional language – ability to give information clearly. Part 3 practices negotiation and collaboration skills, and Part 4 is designed to test the ability to report, explain, summarise and to develop a discussion naturally. Pictures and other visual prompts are used in Parts 2 and 3 to cue various tasks. Unit 12 of the textbook under analysis includes four speaking tasks – three of them concerning Parts 3 and 4, and one on Part 2. According to Kramina (2000) the development of communicative ability requires a range of suitable classroom activities that should provide learners with a degree of communicative urgency so that they have something interesting to say and a reason to communicate with their partners. Learners may be motivated to communicate by the enjoyment of playing a game, the challenge and satisfaction in solving a problem or completing a project. Tasks 1 through 3 focus specifically on problem solving. In task 1 the learners are faced with an unfinished statement and five possible variants to conclude it: the learners are to engage in a discussion and give well-founded answers to the follow-up questions. The correct answers can then be found on the answer page of the book. Task 2 consists of parts a and b. Part a is a work in pairs, where each of the participants are to imagine themselves in a particular problematic/ difficult situation and have to come up with a sound solution, or choose one from the already given visual prompts. In part b, the participants have to briefly explain to the rest of the class the decisions they came to with their partners, and say how far they agree or disagree with the opinions of others. Task 3 is a discussion of points concerning the topic of the unit. Several questions are given, designed to encourage the learners to use their existing knowledge on the subject, brainstorm for new solutions and express personal opinions. Next to these three tasks, tips are given on how to develop the discussions further by listening and responding to what your partner says and allowing the partner to comment on what you say. The last speaking exercise of the unit concentrates on both presenting information clearly and listening carefully to the information given by a partner. Students have to work in pairs and each gets a picture to look at – the pictures are of the same scene but there are several differences between them. First, Student A is to describe the left-hand side of his picture in detail, while Student B listens carefully and notes any differences (without interrupting), and when A has finished, B should mentions any differences noticed. Then vice versa, Student B describes the right-hand side of the picture, while Student A studies for differences. When students are done with both parts of the task, they are to look at the two pictures together and compare their answers to the list given on a different page. This textbook is, however, lacking tasks that would help with the phonetic skills development, so it would be up to the teacher to help students learn the skills to articulate the utterance appropriately. (Kramina 2000: 65) Conclusions Although â€Å"Focus on Advanced English C. A. E. † is a textbook designed specifically as an integrated course for students preparing for the Cambridge Certificate in Advanced English examination, it covers all the essential language skills for foreign language learning and is suitable for English language acquisition, and is generally a good material for the preparation of several other English examinations, e. g. , the English examination of Secondary education in Latvia. The textbook offers 14 units covering a wide variety of stimulating topics, authentic reading texts from a range of sources, thorough practice of all language skills, a Grammar File with detailed information of all points covered in the units, and a Writing File with model text types and useful language, all coming from the experienced teacher, teacher trainer and examiner Sue O’Connell. References 1. Harmer J. (2001) English Language teaching. England: Pearson Education Ltd. 2. Helgesen, M. 1998) ESL Magazine. 1 (4): 24-25. Available from http://www. mgu. ac. jp/~ic/helgesen/marc. article2. htm [Accessed March 5, 2013]. 3. Rost, M. (2002) Listening Tasks and Language Acquisition. Available from http://jalt-publications. org/archive/proceedings/2002/018. pdf [Accessed March 5, 2013]. 4. Kramina, I. (2000) Linguo-didactic Theories Underlying Multi-purpose Language Acquisition. Riga: University of Latvia. Online Sources 1. Available from http://lrs. ed. uiuc. edu/students/jblant on/read/readingdef. tm [Accessed March 6, 2013]. 2. Available from http://tlc. cet. ac. il/ShowItem. aspx? ItemID=ccd2b528-84f5-4078-a76f-d6b1243f26e9lang=EN [Accessed March 6, 2013]. 3. Available from http://fis. ucalgary. ca/Brian/611/readingtype. html [Accessed March 6, 2013]. 4. Available from http://www. multiplechoicequestionsservice. com/multiple-choice-questions-advantages/ [Accessed March 6, 2013]. 5. Available from: http://www. omniglot. com/writing/definition. htm [Accessed March 6, 2013]. How to cite Textbook Analysis, Papers

HIH Ltd On Corporate Governance Practices †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the HIH Ltd On Corporate Governance Practices. Answer: Introduction The HIH Insurance Ltd received a provisional liquidation position in 2001, March 15th. It was liquidated due to its inability to pay debts amounting between the range of AU$3.6 billion and AU$5.3 billion (Parker, 2005). The collapse of HIH group came as a shock to the Australian people, and it was registered as the biggest financial collapse ever in the corporate history of Australia. The demise of HIH was primarily connected to inadequate and poor corporate governance practices. Corporate governance usually involves a framework of rules, processes, systems, and relationships within as well as by which authority is controlled and exercised in corporations (Lipton, 2003). This paper discusses the HIH Insurance Ltd failure regarding the corporate governance practices. HIH failure to adhere to the existing legal and accounting standards Despite HIH having demonstrated a conservative corporate culture, it expressed governance deficiencies (Hill Yablon, 2002) that saw it collapse to the surprise of many. The company did not adhere fully to the set legal and accounting standards. Many of its directors were banned from the company for significant terms, and some of them had to part with a substantial financial penalty. They breached their duties and did not adhere to set out rules and regulations according to the Corporations Act (Allan, 2006). The company majored more at maximizing profit at the expense of adhering and implementing the standard corporate governance procedures. The company is known to dishonor the set-out procedures and implemented the undesirable corporate governance practices which led to its collapse. The audit report The HIH audit analysis was characterized by a continual financial depressing scenario. The corporate governance model practice and setting implemented by the HIH was questionable (Jones, 2011). The Anderson Accounting Firm being the main auditor at the moment as well as the external advisor, failed to obtain sufficient audit evidence. Considerable adjustments could have been made to the accounting process especially concerning a particular matter being the subject of the inquiry. Poor cash auditing, inferior finance resource management, and poor operational and financial activities played a huge role in the collapse of the HIH (Carnegie OConnell, 2014). The audit committee of the HIH was concerned mainly with financial affairs of the company such as the accounting policies, audit issues, and performance standards. However, their structure of the board of directors did not tally with the recommendation of the Australian Security Exchange (ASX) best practice, and this made the corpora te governance of the HIH to have some flaws. Internal organizational practices The HIH in its operations implemented the under-reserve policy in line with the estimated future claims. It failed to implement the prudent margin set by the Australian Prudential Regulation Authority (APRA) which saw the company make continuous losses for successive periods, especially regarding the underwriting process. The organization practices and systems of the HIH were poor, and they lacked frequent monitoring (Leung et al., 2009). The failure was more related to such cases as compared to the widespread fraud. The management failed to disclose the financial position of the company, and therefore, the whole process of managing the company was built on undesirable corporate governance practices. The internal systems and processes of the company as well lacked integrity and accountability. The culture of the HIH Ltd as presented by the Royal Commission was that the decisions of the top leaders were not to be questioned at any instance (Westfield, 2003). This affected largely thei r operations since even in those moments that their decisions and actions breached the law of the commonwealth as well as other regulatory policies, they could not be questioned. Regulatory authorities The main regulatory authority that was concerned with the working of HIH was the HIH Royal Commission. It investigated the underwriting performance in relation to the risk pricing ability. The HIH employed the under-reserve policy as directed by the CEO then, Ray Williams. They did not follow the APRA in setting the prudential margin (Psaros, 2008). The ASX Corporate Governance Council as well was concerned with how the HIH employed the corporate governance practice. It gave the best practice recommendations which would increase integrity, efficiency, and quality of the company. The Board of Directors (BOD) structure of HIH was not effective and therefore, by implementing the ASX rules and restructuring the BOD, then, more value would be added to the companys activities, integrity in financial reporting enhanced as well as balanced and accurate disclosures ensured (Clarke, 2007). Avoiding significant disparities especially in control mechanisms and the quality of the managerial overs ight in boardrooms, helps enhance implementation of the corporate governance practices. Policies followed by the HIH group in relation to internal financial reports The accounting practices of the HIH was considered as aggressive and complex. Before it was liquidated, it used to acquire several other companies which led it to the path of insolvency. In the year 2000, the Anderson report indicated the company had assets of $939 million in approximation (Mirshekary et al., 2005). However, the inadequacy of independence among the directors and auditors affected their operations immensely. The management as well did not enforce or monitor the due diligence practices effectively. For many times it implemented incorrect accounting policies, particularly for the financial reinsurance contracts. With many under-reserving liabilities especially in the operations of the United States and the United Kingdom as well as in the Fai, its clear the policies of HIH were not effective. Despite the fact that HIH employed the model of corporate governance, the board misunderstood the appropriate business and long-term strategies that made them lose many opportuniti es (Clarke et al., 2003). The HIH as well could not control the internal processes and systems and therefore, this lead to the failure of the internal processes. Performance indicators signifying compliance The HIH practice of corporate governance involved various old features. The dearth of some recorded and defined guidelines and policies, the absence of the independent critical analysis of the financial reports, and failure of resolving the conflict of interests among the BOD are some of the policies the HIH employed in its operations (Buchanan et al., 2003). The HIH had a reputation of aggressive pricing in the market to win business. It wrote volatile classes such as professional indemnity, inward treaty reinsurance, and public liability. It expanded to other unchartered areas like film financing, marine reinsurance, and Taiwanese military accident cover and much more. HIH kept on expanding but it did not put into consideration the corporate regulations and also it operated with limited financial due diligence. The company did not clearly define the key performance indicators of the executives and the BOD (Kang et al., 2007). It did not as well perform an independent review of the internal firms structure. For the company, therefore, to improve its performance, it was necessary to stop overregulating responsibilities using a compliance-driven approach as well as focus on the best practice framework and compliance to achieve the best results. Significance of information technology Information technology plays a huge role in ensuring the success of a company. For insurance companies, for instance, the effectiveness of the accounting and audit report will rely on the information technology systems in use. Audit deficiencies that the HIH majorly faced can be traced back to their technology systems (Ali Green, 2009). Information technology, on the other hand, can be used to facilitate frauds and override the management controls. Appropriate information technology systems can enhance lack of accountability experienced by HIH and which is key in corporate governance. Reporting plans The APRA sets out a prudential supervision framework for every insurance company. It includes the improved disclosure of the financial reports, quarterly audit arrangements, covering of the consolidated groups, and strengthening of the governance, supervisory, and actuarial arrangements. HIH company did not follow these guidelines, and there were significant breaches. The financial disclosure was not done in time and did not follow the ASX recommendations (Mardjono, 2005). Also, the audit report focused more on the operational and bottom line as opposed to risk management. Main failures and recommendations There were three main processes that aided the failure and collapse of HIH. Ineffective corporate governance practice had the most weight in facilitating the collapse of the HIH group. It is important to follow the set-out procedures by the corporate society and also the government. The firm also had inferior risk management practices (Brown et al., 2009). For every firm to be successful, it needs to put the appropriate strategies in place to deal with any unlikely outcome of a risk. Risk management strategies are essential for the survival of a company in times of crises. Lastly, the audit performed by the Anderson Accounting Firm was questionable. Proper auditing is vital in ensuring all aspects of the business are taken care off. Failure to which the company will encounter loses and eventually run bankrupt. Performing full audit of the company yearly and in detail can help detect areas that need improvement and hence prevent any possible failure (Council, 2007). It is also importa nt to implement appropriate risk management strategies and also comply with the corporate governance requirements. Conclusion Corporate governance influences how a company sets its objectives, monitors and assess risks, and optimizes the performance. Effective structures for corporate governance normally helps companies to create value through innovation, entrepreneurialism, exploration, development, and accountability. HIH failure to adhere fully to the corporate governance regulations affected its operations and eventually led to its demise (Clarke, 2004). It, therefore, becomes crucial for every organization to comply with the corporate governance requirements processes for corporate governance adherence and avoid conflict of interests. References Ali, S., Green, P. (2009). IT governance mechanisms in public sector organizations: An Australian context. Handbook of Research on Information Management and the Global Landscape, 458-478. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=hih+collapse+corporate+governanceoq=HIH++collapse Allan, G. (2006). The HIH collapse: A costly catalyst for reform. Deakin L. 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