Textbook Analysis Free Essays

string(73) " use the information that is already given, but using one’s own words\." University of Latvia Faculty of Humanities Department of English Studies Textbook Analysis 3rd year, group B student Kristaps Briedis Riga 2013 Introduction The â€Å"Focus on Advanced English C. A. E. We will write a custom essay sample on Textbook Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now † is written by Sue O’Connell and first published in Pearson Education Limited at the Edinburgh Gate, Harlow in year 1999, and the edition at hand is the thirteenth impression printed in 2006. The textbook is oriented for students preparing for the Cambridge Certificate in Advanced English examination. Further, the analysis of syllabus will be based on the material given in the revised and updated edition of the â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † The whole text book consists of 240 pages. It includes fourteen units, which are divided according to different topics (e. g. Severe Weather, Time Eaters, Stress etc. ). Each unit of the â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † is devoted to the development of all language skills: reading, writing, listening, speaking. Moreover, there are grammar and vocabulary tasks in each unit. One unit from the â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † (Unit 12 â€Å"Living Dangerously†) was chosen for the analysis of the whole book, because each unit is devoted to the development of all language skills and thus, it is enough to analyze only one of them in order to understand how the whole book â€Å"works†. Reading Reading can be defined as the process of constructing meaning from written texts (Online 1). Thus, learning reading skills means understanding the text what one reads. But why do we need to understand what we read? According to Harmer (2001:200), there are two types of reasons for reading. The first is instrumental reason, which means that people read because it helps him/her to achieve particular goal (e. g. people read road signs in order to know where to go). The other type is called pleasurable. That means that the reason for reading some particular text is to get pleasure (e. g. reading illustrated cartoon). Thus, it does not matter what reason the student has, it is important for him/her to practice reading skills. Unit 12 of the â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † offers the students two reading exercises. The first text is the magazine article called â€Å"Living Dangerously. † It contains about 400 words and is divided into 8 paragraphs. There is a pre-reading exercise, which students should do before reading the main text. The pre-reading exercises motivate the students and encourage their involvement in the topic and theme of the text (Online 2). After doing a pre-reading and a while-reading activity, students are asked to fill the gaps in the article choosing the proper paragraph (from A-G) given after the text. In order to achieve a general understanding of a text, the students do extensive reading, which includes scanning (a quick reading, focusing on locating specific information) and skimming (a quick reading to know how the passage is organized and to get an idea of the intention of the writer) (Online 3). Finally, the post-reading exercise is given to check how the students have understood the text and to develop their critical thinking. In this exercise the students are asked to find given expressions in the text and work out the meaning of them from the context (e. g. ested interest might mean a personal stake or involvement in an undertaking or situation). As the second task, a newspapers article â€Å"You are caught in a fire then what? † is given. It is about two times longer than previous article (about 800 words). Firstly, students are asked to scan the text (to read it quickly) in order to be able to answer some questions in pre-reading activity (e. g. Who devised the Su rvival Game and why? ). Then, students should read the article more carefully in order to do the following post-reading exercise. This type of exercise is different from the first one. In the second case students have to answer multiple choice questions. There are 6 questions with 4 answers in each. Some advantages of this type of exercises are the following: multiple choice exercises require less time than some written tasks, it is considered to be more objective than a usual written task, and â€Å"it will allow assessing one’s knowledge without taking into account all the irrelevant factors† (Online 4). Writing Writing is said to be a method of representing language in visual or tactile form (Online 5). And more important it is a skill of marking coherent words on paper and composing text (Online 6). There are many reasons why writing is important, for example, the ability to express one’s thoughts and ideas, communicative competence (letters), also it serves as a record, as in expressing one’s ideas for future references (Online 6). There are different types of writing – writing to inform, educational writing, writing to entertain, persuasive writing and motivational writing (Online 7). To improve writing skills there are some essential instructions that need to be performed – research, think, organize, write, edit, revise, relax (Online 7). Two writing exercises are included into the unit 12 of the â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † The first exercise is writing an article (~250 words) about an interesting adventure. The textbook has a good approach to the writing tasks as it provides a ‘Task Checklist’, where there are several guideline questions concerning format and approach, content and organization, style and the target reader, for example, ‘Who are the magazine readers? ’ or ‘What language features are needed for this content? ’. Also the textbook provides a ‘Writing File’, where the features of different types of writing – formal and informal letters, articles, reports, reviews and so on – are shown. The second part of the exercise is the involvement of some structures in the article in order to emphasize or add some dramatic effect, for example, writing sentences using inversion (a reversal of normal word order) or cleft structure (A construction in which some element in a sentence is moved from its normal position into a separate clause to give it greater emphasis) (Online 8). The second exercise on writing consists of writing a memo (~50 words) and a report (~200 words) about the security in collage. The essential part in this task is to use the information that is already given, but using one’s own words. You read "Textbook Analysis" in category "Papers" The task also has a ‘Task Checklist’ with the guideline questions and indication to the ‘Writing File’ and also includes the explanation and tips on writing a memo. â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † aim is based on covering different types of writing. The Unit 12 included persuasive writing (writing a memo), which improves the skills of argumentation (Online 7), and informative writing (writing an article). The tasks are well organized and easy to understand, they provide comprehensible instructions and also some tips for writing the given type of the text. Additionally there is a supplement, where the features of the different types of texts are enclosed, so it is easy for a student to rapidly find the necessary information. Listening Listening is the ability to accurately receive messages in the communication process (Online 9). Listening is not an easy process because the listener should concentrate and understand everything what he/she hears on the spot. It is impossible for the listener to adjust the pace of speech, listen again or check an unknown word. In addition, listening is not the same as hearing as listening means paying attention to not only what is being told, but also to the manner how it is being told. According to the statistics, adults spend approximately 70% of time communicating, while approximately 45% of the time spent on communication is listening (Online 9). After a short explanation on what is listening and why it is so important in everyday communication, it is essential to look how listening is taught in schools. The textbook under analysis provides mostly two (in some units – one) listening tasks in each unit. According to Rost (2002), listening tasks can be divided into three phases: pre-listening, while-listening and post-listening. This division is not always present in the textbook because in quite many of the tasks pre-listening or post-listening is missing. Pre-listening and post-listening are very important because pre-listening is like a warm-up for while-reading as it ‘activates the background knowledge and  integrates  the directions of listening’ (Helgesen, 1998), while post-reading ‘allows the learner to build mental representations and develop shortterm second language memory, and increase motivation for listening a second time’ (Rost, 2002). The textbook presents such pre-reading tasks as questions on the theme and vocabulary related exercises. In Unit 12 two vocabulary related exercises are offered as lead-in tasks into the following istening tasks as well as into the whole unit and theme. All while-listening tasks are divided into four different types or parts (as they are called in the book). In parts 1 and 2 a monologue or sometimes a dialogue can be heard. The task type used in these parts is mostly filling in the gaps. The students are tested for ability of hearing specific information (or bot tom-up listening), which, according to Helgesen (1998), is similar to scanning. He writes that listening to specific information is difficult as students ‘try to catch everything, often taking the time to mentally translate it into their mother tongue’ (Helgesen, 1998). A longer recording of a discussion or conversation can be heard in the part 3. The student’s ability of understanding the text as a whole (or top-down listening), including the gist and specific information, is tested in this part. The task types are filling in the gaps, sentence completion and four-option multiple choice questions. In part 4 five short extracts can be heard. Students are asked to identify the situation or topic, the manner and the attitude of speaking, the goal of the speaker or specific information. The task types are multiple matching or three-option multiple choice questions. The while-listening texts are in the form of formal and informal conversations, public announcements and private messages. The while-listening tasks in Unit 12 are of parts 1 and 3. Both exercises are filling in the gaps, and the recording can be heard twice in each of them. The few post-reading tasks are mostly questions on the theme, for example, the task in Unit 12 asks to imagine yourself in the situation connected with the previously heard text and discuss what you would do yourself, which is quite creative and interesting post-reading exercise. Most of the tasks are one-way as ‘all input comes from an outside source (like a videotape) to the learner’ not from outside, for example, a speaking partner (Rost, 2002). In addition, the listening sub-skills, such as skimming, scanning, note-taking, understanding attitudinal and conceptual meanings, understanding unfamiliar lexical items through context, understanding relationships within the sentence, also are taught in the textbook (Online 10). Speaking Speaking is  the delivery of language through the mouth (Online 11). Speaking skills enable learners to enter the community of the target language (Kramina, 2000: 86). This vocalized form of language usually requires at least one listener (of course, some people talk to themselves! ) – speech can flow naturally from one person to another in the form of dialogue, or it can also be planned and rehearsed, as in the delivery of a speech or presentation (Online 11). According to Kramina (2000), to act as a speaker participating in the communicative process, the learner must be able to carry out a sequence of skilled actions which comprise: cognitive, linguistic, and phonetic skills. There are speaking tasks throughout the textbook under analysis that help practice and enhance those skills. There are four parts to the speaking tasks in â€Å"Advanced English C. A. E. † each focusing on different speaking skills and sub-skills. Part 1 focuses on general social language – general social English and the ability to interact with other people in English. Part 2 focuses on transactional language – ability to give information clearly. Part 3 practices negotiation and collaboration skills, and Part 4 is designed to test the ability to report, explain, summarise and to develop a discussion naturally. Pictures and other visual prompts are used in Parts 2 and 3 to cue various tasks. Unit 12 of the textbook under analysis includes four speaking tasks – three of them concerning Parts 3 and 4, and one on Part 2. According to Kramina (2000) the development of communicative ability requires a range of suitable classroom activities that should provide learners with a degree of communicative urgency so that they have something interesting to say and a reason to communicate with their partners. Learners may be motivated to communicate by the enjoyment of playing a game, the challenge and satisfaction in solving a problem or completing a project. Tasks 1 through 3 focus specifically on problem solving. In task 1 the learners are faced with an unfinished statement and five possible variants to conclude it: the learners are to engage in a discussion and give well-founded answers to the follow-up questions. The correct answers can then be found on the answer page of the book. Task 2 consists of parts a and b. Part a is a work in pairs, where each of the participants are to imagine themselves in a particular problematic/ difficult situation and have to come up with a sound solution, or choose one from the already given visual prompts. In part b, the participants have to briefly explain to the rest of the class the decisions they came to with their partners, and say how far they agree or disagree with the opinions of others. Task 3 is a discussion of points concerning the topic of the unit. Several questions are given, designed to encourage the learners to use their existing knowledge on the subject, brainstorm for new solutions and express personal opinions. Next to these three tasks, tips are given on how to develop the discussions further by listening and responding to what your partner says and allowing the partner to comment on what you say. The last speaking exercise of the unit concentrates on both presenting information clearly and listening carefully to the information given by a partner. Students have to work in pairs and each gets a picture to look at – the pictures are of the same scene but there are several differences between them. First, Student A is to describe the left-hand side of his picture in detail, while Student B listens carefully and notes any differences (without interrupting), and when A has finished, B should mentions any differences noticed. Then vice versa, Student B describes the right-hand side of the picture, while Student A studies for differences. When students are done with both parts of the task, they are to look at the two pictures together and compare their answers to the list given on a different page. This textbook is, however, lacking tasks that would help with the phonetic skills development, so it would be up to the teacher to help students learn the skills to articulate the utterance appropriately. (Kramina 2000: 65) Conclusions Although â€Å"Focus on Advanced English C. A. E. † is a textbook designed specifically as an integrated course for students preparing for the Cambridge Certificate in Advanced English examination, it covers all the essential language skills for foreign language learning and is suitable for English language acquisition, and is generally a good material for the preparation of several other English examinations, e. g. , the English examination of Secondary education in Latvia. The textbook offers 14 units covering a wide variety of stimulating topics, authentic reading texts from a range of sources, thorough practice of all language skills, a Grammar File with detailed information of all points covered in the units, and a Writing File with model text types and useful language, all coming from the experienced teacher, teacher trainer and examiner Sue O’Connell. References 1. Harmer J. (2001) English Language teaching. England: Pearson Education Ltd. 2. Helgesen, M. 1998) ESL Magazine. 1 (4): 24-25. Available from http://www. mgu. ac. jp/~ic/helgesen/marc. article2. htm [Accessed March 5, 2013]. 3. Rost, M. (2002) Listening Tasks and Language Acquisition. Available from http://jalt-publications. org/archive/proceedings/2002/018. pdf [Accessed March 5, 2013]. 4. Kramina, I. (2000) Linguo-didactic Theories Underlying Multi-purpose Language Acquisition. Riga: University of Latvia. Online Sources 1. Available from http://lrs. ed. uiuc. edu/students/jblant on/read/readingdef. tm [Accessed March 6, 2013]. 2. Available from http://tlc. cet. ac. il/ShowItem. aspx? ItemID=ccd2b528-84f5-4078-a76f-d6b1243f26e9lang=EN [Accessed March 6, 2013]. 3. Available from http://fis. ucalgary. ca/Brian/611/readingtype. html [Accessed March 6, 2013]. 4. Available from http://www. multiplechoicequestionsservice. com/multiple-choice-questions-advantages/ [Accessed March 6, 2013]. 5. Available from: http://www. omniglot. com/writing/definition. htm [Accessed March 6, 2013]. How to cite Textbook Analysis, Papers

HIH Ltd On Corporate Governance Practices †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the HIH Ltd On Corporate Governance Practices. Answer: Introduction The HIH Insurance Ltd received a provisional liquidation position in 2001, March 15th. It was liquidated due to its inability to pay debts amounting between the range of AU$3.6 billion and AU$5.3 billion (Parker, 2005). The collapse of HIH group came as a shock to the Australian people, and it was registered as the biggest financial collapse ever in the corporate history of Australia. The demise of HIH was primarily connected to inadequate and poor corporate governance practices. Corporate governance usually involves a framework of rules, processes, systems, and relationships within as well as by which authority is controlled and exercised in corporations (Lipton, 2003). This paper discusses the HIH Insurance Ltd failure regarding the corporate governance practices. HIH failure to adhere to the existing legal and accounting standards Despite HIH having demonstrated a conservative corporate culture, it expressed governance deficiencies (Hill Yablon, 2002) that saw it collapse to the surprise of many. The company did not adhere fully to the set legal and accounting standards. Many of its directors were banned from the company for significant terms, and some of them had to part with a substantial financial penalty. They breached their duties and did not adhere to set out rules and regulations according to the Corporations Act (Allan, 2006). The company majored more at maximizing profit at the expense of adhering and implementing the standard corporate governance procedures. The company is known to dishonor the set-out procedures and implemented the undesirable corporate governance practices which led to its collapse. The audit report The HIH audit analysis was characterized by a continual financial depressing scenario. The corporate governance model practice and setting implemented by the HIH was questionable (Jones, 2011). The Anderson Accounting Firm being the main auditor at the moment as well as the external advisor, failed to obtain sufficient audit evidence. Considerable adjustments could have been made to the accounting process especially concerning a particular matter being the subject of the inquiry. Poor cash auditing, inferior finance resource management, and poor operational and financial activities played a huge role in the collapse of the HIH (Carnegie OConnell, 2014). The audit committee of the HIH was concerned mainly with financial affairs of the company such as the accounting policies, audit issues, and performance standards. However, their structure of the board of directors did not tally with the recommendation of the Australian Security Exchange (ASX) best practice, and this made the corpora te governance of the HIH to have some flaws. Internal organizational practices The HIH in its operations implemented the under-reserve policy in line with the estimated future claims. It failed to implement the prudent margin set by the Australian Prudential Regulation Authority (APRA) which saw the company make continuous losses for successive periods, especially regarding the underwriting process. The organization practices and systems of the HIH were poor, and they lacked frequent monitoring (Leung et al., 2009). The failure was more related to such cases as compared to the widespread fraud. The management failed to disclose the financial position of the company, and therefore, the whole process of managing the company was built on undesirable corporate governance practices. The internal systems and processes of the company as well lacked integrity and accountability. The culture of the HIH Ltd as presented by the Royal Commission was that the decisions of the top leaders were not to be questioned at any instance (Westfield, 2003). This affected largely thei r operations since even in those moments that their decisions and actions breached the law of the commonwealth as well as other regulatory policies, they could not be questioned. Regulatory authorities The main regulatory authority that was concerned with the working of HIH was the HIH Royal Commission. It investigated the underwriting performance in relation to the risk pricing ability. The HIH employed the under-reserve policy as directed by the CEO then, Ray Williams. They did not follow the APRA in setting the prudential margin (Psaros, 2008). The ASX Corporate Governance Council as well was concerned with how the HIH employed the corporate governance practice. It gave the best practice recommendations which would increase integrity, efficiency, and quality of the company. The Board of Directors (BOD) structure of HIH was not effective and therefore, by implementing the ASX rules and restructuring the BOD, then, more value would be added to the companys activities, integrity in financial reporting enhanced as well as balanced and accurate disclosures ensured (Clarke, 2007). Avoiding significant disparities especially in control mechanisms and the quality of the managerial overs ight in boardrooms, helps enhance implementation of the corporate governance practices. Policies followed by the HIH group in relation to internal financial reports The accounting practices of the HIH was considered as aggressive and complex. Before it was liquidated, it used to acquire several other companies which led it to the path of insolvency. In the year 2000, the Anderson report indicated the company had assets of $939 million in approximation (Mirshekary et al., 2005). However, the inadequacy of independence among the directors and auditors affected their operations immensely. The management as well did not enforce or monitor the due diligence practices effectively. For many times it implemented incorrect accounting policies, particularly for the financial reinsurance contracts. With many under-reserving liabilities especially in the operations of the United States and the United Kingdom as well as in the Fai, its clear the policies of HIH were not effective. Despite the fact that HIH employed the model of corporate governance, the board misunderstood the appropriate business and long-term strategies that made them lose many opportuniti es (Clarke et al., 2003). The HIH as well could not control the internal processes and systems and therefore, this lead to the failure of the internal processes. Performance indicators signifying compliance The HIH practice of corporate governance involved various old features. The dearth of some recorded and defined guidelines and policies, the absence of the independent critical analysis of the financial reports, and failure of resolving the conflict of interests among the BOD are some of the policies the HIH employed in its operations (Buchanan et al., 2003). The HIH had a reputation of aggressive pricing in the market to win business. It wrote volatile classes such as professional indemnity, inward treaty reinsurance, and public liability. It expanded to other unchartered areas like film financing, marine reinsurance, and Taiwanese military accident cover and much more. HIH kept on expanding but it did not put into consideration the corporate regulations and also it operated with limited financial due diligence. The company did not clearly define the key performance indicators of the executives and the BOD (Kang et al., 2007). It did not as well perform an independent review of the internal firms structure. For the company, therefore, to improve its performance, it was necessary to stop overregulating responsibilities using a compliance-driven approach as well as focus on the best practice framework and compliance to achieve the best results. Significance of information technology Information technology plays a huge role in ensuring the success of a company. For insurance companies, for instance, the effectiveness of the accounting and audit report will rely on the information technology systems in use. Audit deficiencies that the HIH majorly faced can be traced back to their technology systems (Ali Green, 2009). Information technology, on the other hand, can be used to facilitate frauds and override the management controls. Appropriate information technology systems can enhance lack of accountability experienced by HIH and which is key in corporate governance. Reporting plans The APRA sets out a prudential supervision framework for every insurance company. It includes the improved disclosure of the financial reports, quarterly audit arrangements, covering of the consolidated groups, and strengthening of the governance, supervisory, and actuarial arrangements. HIH company did not follow these guidelines, and there were significant breaches. The financial disclosure was not done in time and did not follow the ASX recommendations (Mardjono, 2005). Also, the audit report focused more on the operational and bottom line as opposed to risk management. Main failures and recommendations There were three main processes that aided the failure and collapse of HIH. Ineffective corporate governance practice had the most weight in facilitating the collapse of the HIH group. It is important to follow the set-out procedures by the corporate society and also the government. The firm also had inferior risk management practices (Brown et al., 2009). For every firm to be successful, it needs to put the appropriate strategies in place to deal with any unlikely outcome of a risk. Risk management strategies are essential for the survival of a company in times of crises. Lastly, the audit performed by the Anderson Accounting Firm was questionable. Proper auditing is vital in ensuring all aspects of the business are taken care off. Failure to which the company will encounter loses and eventually run bankrupt. Performing full audit of the company yearly and in detail can help detect areas that need improvement and hence prevent any possible failure (Council, 2007). It is also importa nt to implement appropriate risk management strategies and also comply with the corporate governance requirements. Conclusion Corporate governance influences how a company sets its objectives, monitors and assess risks, and optimizes the performance. Effective structures for corporate governance normally helps companies to create value through innovation, entrepreneurialism, exploration, development, and accountability. HIH failure to adhere fully to the corporate governance regulations affected its operations and eventually led to its demise (Clarke, 2004). It, therefore, becomes crucial for every organization to comply with the corporate governance requirements processes for corporate governance adherence and avoid conflict of interests. References Ali, S., Green, P. (2009). IT governance mechanisms in public sector organizations: An Australian context. Handbook of Research on Information Management and the Global Landscape, 458-478. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=hih+collapse+corporate+governanceoq=HIH++collapse Allan, G. (2006). The HIH collapse: A costly catalyst for reform. Deakin L. Rev., 11, 137. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=Allan%2C+G.+%282006%29.+The+HIH+collapse%3A+A+costly+catalyst+for+reform.+Deakin+L.+Rev.%2C+11%2C+137.btnG= Brown, I., Steen, A., Foreman, J. (2009). Risk management in corporate governance: A review and proposal. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 17(5), 546-558. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=HIH+insurance+Ltd+collapse+in+corporate+governancebtnG= Buchanan, B., Arnold, T., Nail, L. (2003). Beware of the ides of March: The demise of HIH Insurance. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=The+collapse+of+HIH+insurance+Ltd+btnG= Carnegie, G. D., OConnell, B. T. (2014). A longitudinal study of the interplay of corporate collapse, accounting failure and governance change in Australia: Early 1890s to early 2000s. Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 25(6), 446-468. Clarke, F., Dean, G., Oliver, K. (2003). Corporate collapse: accounting, regulatory and ethical failure. Cambridge University Press. https://scholar.google.co Clarke, T. (2004). Cycles of Crisis and Regulation: the enduring agency and stewardship problems of corporate governance. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 12(2), 153-161. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=hih+collapse+corporate+governanceoq=HIH++collapse Clarke, T. (2007). International corporate governance: A comparative approach. Routledge. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=Clarke%2C+T.+%282007%29.+International+corporate+governance%3A+A+comparative+approach.+Routledge.btnG= Council, A. C. G. (2007). Corporate governance principles and recommendations. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=Council%2C+A.+C.+G.+%282007%29.+Corporate+governance+principles+and+recommendations.btnG= Hill, J., Yablon, C. M. (2002). Corporate governance and executive remuneration: Rediscovering managerial positional conflict. UNSWLJ, 25, 294. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=HIH+insurance+Ltd+collapse+in+corporate+governancebtnG= Jones, M. (Ed.). (2011). Creative accounting, fraud and international accounting scandals. John Wiley Sons. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=hih+collapse+corporate+governanceoq=HIH++collapse Kang, H., Cheng, M., Gray, S. J. (2007). Corporate governance and board composition: Diversity and independence of Australian boards. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 15(2), 194-207. Lipton, P. (2003). The demise of HIH: corporate governance lessons. Keeping good companies, 55(5), 273. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=hih+collapse+corporate+governanceoq=HIH++collapse Leung, P., Coram, P., Cooper, B., Richardson, P. (2009). Modern Auditing and Assurance Services, (4e). John Wiley and Sons, Australia. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=HIH+insurance+Ltd+collapse+in+corporate+governancebtnG= Mardjono, A. (2005). A tale of corporate governance: lessons why firms fail. Managerial Auditing Journal, 20(3), 272-283. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=Mardjono%2C+A.+%282005%29.+A+tale+of+corporate+governance%3A+lessons+why+firms+fail.+Managerial+Auditing+Journal%2C+20%283%29%2C+272-283.btnG= Mirshekary, S., Yaftian, A. M., Cross, D. (2005). Australian corporate collapse: The case of HIH Insurance. Journal of Financial Services Marketing, 9(3), 249-258. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=The+collapse+of+HIH+insurance+Ltd+btnG= Parker, L. D. (2005). Corporate governance crisis down under: post-Enron accounting education and research inertia. European Accounting Review, 14(2), 383-394. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=hih+collapse+corporate+governanceoq=HIH++collapse Psaros, J. (2008). Australian corporate governance: A review and analysis of key issues. Pearson Higher Education AU. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=hih+collapse+corporate+governanceoq=HIH++collapse Westfield, M. (2003). HIH: Inside the Story of Australia's Biggest Corporate Collapse. Wiley. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=enas_sdt=0%2C5q=Westfield%2C+M.+%282003%29.+HIH%3A+Inside+the+Story+of+Australia%27s+Biggest+Corporate+Collapse.+Wiley.btnG=

Stanford Prison Experiment and Ethics Essay Example

Stanford Prison Experiment and Ethics Paper Ethics and the Stanford Prison Experiment by Philipp Zimbardo In 1971 Philipp Zimbardo carried out one of the most ethically controversial psychological experiment the ‘Stanford Prison Experiment’. Originally he aimed to study how much our behavior is structured by the social role we occupy. Describing the study briefly 24 undergraduates with no criminal and psychological record were chosen for the research to play the roles of prisoners and guards in a mock prison situated in the basement of Stanford University Psychology Building, equipped by hidden cameras and microphones. As the lead researcher, Zimbardo was observing the events from a different room, giving instructions to the guards. The research was supposed to last about two weeks. However, aggressive and violent behavior quickly appeared on the behalf of the group playing the role of the guards, while prisoners became depressed and passive. Ultimately some of the prisoners were subject to torture. Since the participants assimilated with their role rapidly and provided surprising psychological outcome, Dr Zimbardo shot down the research after 5 days. The experiment meant to demonstrate the power of authority, support of the situational attribution of behavior rather than the dispositional attribution. For forty years it was criticized as well as argued when it came to the relation of ethics and psychology. If it would be carried out today it would fail to meet the Ethical Principals of the Psychologist and Code of Conduct of the American Psychological Association. This paper will discuss the main unethical elements of the Stanford Prison Experiment, such as the violation of privacy and confidentiality, physical and mental harm during an experiment and the researcher’s involvement of the warden role. ‘Some psychological studies produce very surprising results for the researchers and the participants. Sometimes the results are so striking that they challenge our explanations of human behavior and human motivation. ’- writes Craig Haney two years after the experiment. We will write a custom essay sample on Stanford Prison Experiment and Ethics specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Stanford Prison Experiment and Ethics specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Stanford Prison Experiment and Ethics specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Even though the ‘Study of Prisoners and Guards in a Simulated Prison’ only gives a detailed overview of the experiment several unethical treatment can already be observed from the beginning. According to their contract the participants were offered a fifteen-dollar daily payment and were guaranteed basic living needs. In return they were given no instructions of what they shall expect. A few days later Zimbargo obtained the police help to demonstrate the whole arrest of the prisoner group. Participants were captured in their homes unexpectedly by a police car, being handcuffed and charged with crimes. Their pictures as well as their fingerprints were taken; afterwards they were brought to the ‘mock-prison’ blindfolded (p 6). The previously mentioned actions strongly violated their right to privacy. Throughout the experiment participants were put under physical and psychological harm, which strongly would violate the APA code of ethics. Prisoners were not referred by names, but only by numbers and unlike the guards they were not allowed to leave the experiment scene. They spent their days in a 6ft x 9ft prison cell. During the first days the prisoners began to behave according to as they were required rather than using their own judgment and morals. Already on the second day the prisoners suffered humiliation, and punishment. ‘The most striking result of was that apparently normal people could act with abuse and cruelty when placed in a compelling situation. After day one all prisoner’s basic rights became a privilege among them the toilet visits and they were often forced to clean the toilet with their bare hands. (Bredy, Longsdon. p705) The same writing points out how psychological harms had a great impact on the prisoners. On the third day some of the prisoners began to experience severe negative emotions, passive behavior, depression and acute anxiety. Two of them had to be released from the study early. Those prisoners who remained in the mock prison began assimilated with their role and accepted humiliation and abusive treatmen t, as if they deserved it (Bredy, Longson. p 706). Not only the prisoners but the guards as well lost their sense of identity. Later Zimbardo in his writing ‘Pathology of Imprisonment’ mentions that the experiment ‘was no longer apparent to most of the subject where reality ended and their role began’. The majority of the subjects became prisoners and guards and was no longer being able to differentiate between their roles and their personality. (Zimbardo. p. 249) All together psychologically the following were observed: the loss of personal identity on both sides; and the arbitrary control exerted by the guards made the prisoners lives increasingly unpredictable, causing depression and anxiety. The guards also developed a dependency on prisoners and were emasculated them to the extent that when the prisoners were debriefed they suggested that they had been assigned to be prisoners because they were smaller than the guards. In fact, there was no difference in average height between the prisoners and the guards, and the perceived difference was a response to the prisoners perceptions of themselves and their power (Haney et al. p 14). The physical harm was never proven on record however many critics do predict that mental effects of the experience should have generated automatic physical reactions. As an example that supports this idea happened on the fourth day when one guard detained prisoner 436 kept the him in a two-by-two feet closet for the night, without informing the observer researchers about the situation. Guards were instructing other prisoners to continually keep punching the door of the closet where prisoner 436 was put in. Eventually they tried to persuade the other prisoners that the only way the closet would open and their peer will be free if they give up their blankets and slept on their mattresses. Only one of the prisoners refused to do that. Bradey, Longsdon. p706) From this sense it shall be quickly concluded that prisoners were also under physical harassments, once guards did adopt the negative attitude towards them, their aggression increased. The other main concern is why the researchers did not end the experiment when they saw what was happening in this stimulated prison? After all these ethical and moral violation the experiment continued for six days . As Zimbardo admitted, he also became immersed with his role of his role of being the instructor, providing orders to the guards. He could no longer objectively fulfill his role of lead researcher, (Harney et al. p. 18) still he carried on with the process, knowing that the participants did not realize that they could leave the mock-prison whenever they wanted. When they were asked whether they wish to be released without receiving the amount on the contract, they said yes, but still returned to their cell when they were ordered following this discussion. By then they lost their real identity and voluntarily continued to be carry on the with the prisoner role. On the other hand, guards did no realize that they could leave their role either. Many of them expressed their interest to continue the experiment without payment; in fact many of them enjoyed their role of authority and were accepting more and more night shifts. Similar to the guards and to the prisoners Zimbardo also failed to recognize the ability to leave the experiment at the early stage. Simply he was not able to remain an observer in his own experiment as him became internalized. (Zimbardo, 256) The experiment was stopped when Christina Machlack a graduate student was invited to observe the event for a short period of time and was asked to express her opinion about it. She walked around a yard and talk to a guard. When she sat down behind the hidden cameras, saw the same guard she just recently had a conversation with, she was frightened. In her memoire she writes: â€Å"This man had been transformed. He was talking in a different accent, a Southern accent, which I hadn’t recalled at all. He moved differently and the way he talked was different, not just in the accent, but in the way he was interacting with the prisoners. It was like (seeing) Jekyll and Hyde†¦It really took my breath away. † (Stanford Prison Experiment, Still Powerful After All These Years) Zimbardo concluded that the situation caused the behavior of the participants rather than anything inherent in their individual personality. Four out of the twelve guards were diagnosed with genuine sadistic tendencies. Still, some guards showed sympathy and even tried to help the prisoners. Zimbardo did follow up with the participants following the experiment. All the 24 person were convinced that they have acted under the role and believed that they fulfilled the roles as they were accepted to. As for today there is no record what the experiment caused in their long-term mental health. ( Shaugnessy,p. 137) It is essential to mention that the US Office Naval Research, Marine Corps, and the US Navy provided the funds for the experiments in order to study the relationship between military guards and prisoners. Zimbardo did not consider his experiment unethical. As he stated ‘it had unethical elements’. According to him the experiment was ethically sound, since various ethic committees approved it. ‘It followed the guidelines of the Stanford human subjects ethics committee that approved it. There was no deception; all subjects were told in advance that if prisoners, many of their usual rights would be suspended and they would have only minimally adequate diet and health care during the study,’- he said. Which was planned to last two weeks. However, he did mention that: ‘it was unethical because people suffered and others were allowed to inflict pain and humiliation on their fellows over an extended period of time’ (Stanford Prison Experiment, Still Powerful After All These Years). Maltreatment of prisoners takes place all over the world. These unethical issues were vividly discussed in 2004 when the Guantanamo Bay prisoner torture pictures were released. Many scholars found the similarities between the Guantanamo and the Stanford Prison case event. The only difference was that in the 21st century, no one justified the behavior of the US guards in Guantamo. The ill treatment of the guards was clearly declared unethical worldwide. As the study of psychology grew over the years, more rules have been created regarding its research and its practice. The APA ethical guidelines were enacted in 1992, with strong ethical rules concerning physical and mental harm during an experiment in addition to respecting basic human rights. Hence, as of today no such an experiment could take place within the Ethical Code of the American Psychologist Association. Harley’s article describes the experiment as the events occurred day, by day. It started as a simple behavioral research in order to study prison behavior. The ethical issues began to be pointed out by Bradey and Longsdon who in their writing guides us through the physiological and physical harm occurred during the prison experiment, including the mental abuses of the prisoners and the guards obsession with sudden authority. Zimbardo in his writing of ‘Pathology of Imprisonment’ briefly mentions his own experience regarding the Stanford research, providing us to be able to look at the situation as subjective participant rather than an experimenter. As the paper shows, not only the prisoners or the guards, but he himself, an experienced psychologist failed to differentiate between his warden role and his personality. Shaugnessy’s work is the most recent one, written in the 21th century, when the medical and psychological moral and ethical code was already given universal guidelines and rules. It is logical that Shaugnessy is describing the failure of several ethical issues and criticizes the experiment as a whole. Last but not least, the Stanford News Service provided the interviews and small memoires of the discussed prison study. As the articles and their topics also shows moral and ethical values were different in the medical sphere decades before. As for today, analyzing the connection of ethics and the Stanford Prison Experiment the participants were treated unethical for the people right from the beginning. Participants were not given the opportunity nor given instructions to decide over the acceptance of all the risks involved in the experiment. They were clearly deprived from their basic rights and were subjected to mental and physical harm without realizing they can end the temporary situation. Work Cited Brady, F. Neil, Logsdon, Jeanne M.. (1988). Zimbardos Standard Prison Experiment And The Relevance O. Journal of Business Ethics, 7(9), 703. Retrieved December 12, 2011, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 572750). Zimbardo, P, 1982, ‘Pathology of Imprisonment’. In d Krebs (ed. ), Readings in Social Psychology: Contemporary Perspectives, Second Ed. (Harper Row, New York, NY) p. 249-251 Haney, C. , Banks, W. C. Zimbardo, P. G. (1973). A study of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison. Naval Research Review, 30, 4-17. Shaughnessy, J. J. , Zechmeister, E. B. , Zechmeister, J. S. (2006). ‘Research Methods’ in Psychology Seventh Edition. Boston: McGraw Hill. ‘Stanford Prison Experiment Still Powerful After All These Years’. Stanford University News Service. August 1. 1997. Stanford. California

Sex and the city. Media Analysis

Sex and the city. Media Analysis Sex and the city is one of the most popular cable television and film series in America. The main characters in the show are four independent women on a self exploration mission. Three of these women are in their thirties and one in her mid- forties. These four White American women are the main focus of the show.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Sex and the city. Media Analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The series has multiple story lines running concurrently and it tackles socially relevant themes like feminism, promiscuity, divorce and sexually transmitted infections (Sohn 32). The show highlights how the lives of professional city women are affected by the increasingly changing society. All the episodes in the show are narrated by Sarah Jessica Parker. Sarah is a stylish party girl popularly known for having a unique sense of fashion and is referred to as Carrie Bradshaw in the show. She is an outgoing girl who likes having fun and anticipating love in the process. Carrie is an independent woman in her mid-thirties and sees marriage as an obstacle to her self exploration mission (Sohn 15). The other character is Kim Cantrall starring as Samantha Jones. She is the oldest among the four and is portrayed as the most confident about her sexual life. She is very loyal to her friends and seems strong and outspoken. Kristin Davis starring as Charlotte Yorke is the most optimistic member of the group who advocates for emotional love rather than lust (Jermyn 48). She is an extremely successful woman despite her traditional outlook which at times surprises her friends. She represents the traditional attitude about relationships and love. Despite having a series of relationship, her actions are somehow controlled compared to the other three. The fourth character is Cynthia Nixon starring as Miranda Hobbes. She is a professional attorney who is always negative about love and relationships. There a re quite a number of family –based themes highlighted in the sex and the city show. The theme of sexual immorality commonly referred to as promiscuity is prevalent in the show. This is mostly revealed through Samantha. She has numerous sexual flings in the show. She has an open sexual lifestyle to an extent where she doesn’t mind having sexual relationship with younger men (Jermyn 28). Carrie has a string of boyfriends and she is also unable to settle in any marriage. The show depicts the theme of feminism where the four women represent a modern independent woman who is not ready to be enslaved by any man.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Infidelity is the order of the day in the show. Having multiple sexual partners is portrayed as normal and fun by these four women. This is exactly the picture in modern relationships. The four women portray marriage as a failed affair except Charlotte who believes that a marriage can actually work. Miranda divorces her husband Steve after he admits having cheated on her (Jermyn 87). The chances of divorce are also high in the other marriages and the main cause being infidelity. Economic empowerment on the side of women is highly emphasized in this show. All the four women are professionals who are economically empowered and do not rely on men to support them. Carrie is an established writer and columnist, Samantha a successful business woman, Charlotte a history and finance graduate and finally Miranda who is a professional lawyer. They actually represent a modern day woman on the first driving lane to success (Sohn 13). Apart from being popular, the show has also faced its fare share of criticism. The characters in the show use the tag of feminism to push for their immoral interests. The show promotes sexual immorality in the way sex is advertised by the characters. The show portrays marriage as a failed thing with divorce being depicted as the only way to end marital problems and strain (Jermyn 92). The show glamorizes sex and does not put into consideration its negative effects like unplanned pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections. The show portrays infidelity as a normal and fun thing which is not acceptable in the society. The mode of dressing of these characters is questionable with characters like Carrie going to the extreme end. Their mode of dressing portrays women as potential sex objects for men. In conclusion, sex and the city has continued to have a negative influence to the society and increased viewership of the show will continue to erode our good societal morals. The show has influenced teenagers in a very negative way. A recent survey revealed how the show has encouraged sex amongst teenagers leading to early and unplanned pregnancies for girls who watch the show. On the other side, their male counterparts are more likely to engage in teenage sex th an those who are not viewers of the show (Sohn 88). It is believed that some scenes in the show make the viewers to be sexually charged by arousing their sexual emotions (Jermyn 109).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Sex and the city. Media Analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Jermyn, Deborah. Sex and the City. New York: Wayne State University Press, 2009. Print. Sohn, Amy et al. Sex and the City. New York: HarperCollins, 2008. Print.

A Study Of How Popular TV Shows Bring Out The Themes Of Reality, Drama And Science Fiction

A Study Of How Popular TV Shows Bring Out The Themes Of Reality, Drama And Science Fiction Television shows have different themes for a reason, to appeal to a certain group of people. When a teenager comes home from school, all they want to do is sit down, relax, and watch television. Television shows can be categorized into many different themes. Action and violence appeals to the male crowd while romance appeals to the female crowd. However, comedy appeals to both male and female audiences. The show, Dance Moms, is a reality show made to appeal to reality show lovers. Cartoons like Rugrats are made for childrens’ entertainment. Popular Television shows can be classified according to their different themes; drama, reality, and science fiction. People are drawn to drama. Whether it’s on television, online, or right in front of them, it always attracts us. Pretty Little Liars is all about drama. The show airs on ABC Family every Tuesday night during the season. It is based on a famous book series but the show is a little different from the books. It starts out with showing five girls having a slumber party at one of the girls’ house. They fall asleep and when they wake up, one of the girls, Ally, is missing. The girls go looking for Ally and can’t seem to find her so they call the police. Later on, she is pronounced dead and while this is going on, the four girls are getting threatening texts from someone named â€Å"A.† This person has already killed people who know what really happened to Ally. Two years later, Ally turns out to be alive and comes back to Rosewood, which is the town that she and the others live in. This television show has so much drama that it is a favorite among millions of te enagers and young adults. Another popular television show is The Voice. This show is a reality, contest show with a twist. Opposed to American Idol, the judges are turned away from the contestant. While the person is singing, the judge can decide whether or not they want the contestant on their team. If they like what they hear, they can press their button causing them to spin around and face the singer. The contestant can choose which judge they want to have as their coach. Four people make up the coaches panel this year. Adam Levine, Blake Shelton, Gwen Stefani, and Pharrell Williams are the coaches. Certain people like this show because it brings a twist to television. The contestant isn’t being chosen on their looks or stage presence but on their actual voice. Also, a comedic presence fills the show. The coaches argue and say snide comments to each other in order to get the contestant on their team. Blake and Adam are always saying something funny and are the main reason I watch the show. The sense of competition in a show makes people want to watch it even more. A different type of theme people like in a television show is science fiction. Some shows with this theme are Doctor Who, Once Upon a Time, Revolution, etc. All these shows have one thing in common and that is science fiction. Some people want to see something different in a show, something that is impossible to happen in the real world. One show that is like that is Revolution. This television series is about how the whole world loses power and a militia is formed. The people have to adjust to no longer relying on electricity. A new government is formed and it is called Monroe’s Militia. This government is in no way merciful. They kill anyone who disobeys them and anyone who gets in their way of finding â€Å"the light switch.† Eventually the lights get turned back on and there is electricity for a little while until the government takes advantage of it. The woman responsible for the lights going out is Rachel. Her and her friend, Aaron, try to shut down the program th at gets turned on to avoid bombs hitting a city. They’re seconds too late and thousands of people are killed. This sort of theme in a television show leaves us wanting more. Constant violence and mystery engulfs the show. Miles Matheson used to be in charge of the militia alongside his best friend, Monroe. When Miles leaves the militia, he is constantly on the run from the government with his niece, Charlie, and her mom, Rachel along with their friends. The science fiction part comes into play when a program called â€Å"nano† arises and tries to take over human emotions and their ability to think for themselves. The program saved Aaron, it’s creator, from dying. The program believes that it owes Aaron for creating them. The nano’s are always watching him and listening to Aaron’s thoughts. If he is in distress, they help him. Although this sounds like a good thing, it turns out to be disastrous. Aaron yells at the nano, telling it that he wants the m to go away. The program returns later with a vengeance on humans. It has the ability to give off electricity which, in the wrong hands, can be fatal. Aaron and Rachel try to destroy the program but it is too powerful. Science fiction gives us a look into what the world would be like if we had a worldwide blackout happen to us. Thousands of television shows come on each day , but these three specific themes are my personal favorite. Science fiction, reality, and drama makes an excellent show. Science fiction has that extra spark that I love. It includes out of this world material that is virtually impossible to happen. However, drama is also a great crowd pleaser. If I were to turn on my television and had the choice of Switched at Birth or The Big Bang Theory to watch, I would choose Switched at Birth because it’s a drama show packed with excitement. Television shows with a specific theme can make or break the show. It depends on the person watching the show, whether or not they like it. Does the person like comedy, action, drama, etc? Television shows can have more than one theme, also. It could have comedy, drama, and reality all on one show. Either way, people like certain TV shows for many different reasons. Themes make television shows special.

Without Strategies It Is Not Possible to Provide Direction for the Research Paper

Without Strategies It Is Not Possible to Provide Direction for the Construction Companies - Research Paper Example Corporate strategies have been divided into Five Ps by Mintzberg and they are Plan, Ploy, Position, Pattern and Perspective. While each is a separate type of strategy with its attendant qualifications, yet they are usually present in all strategies to some degree. The real difference lies in the fact that one of them will be dominant and others will play a supportive role. (Mintzberg). Markets are heterogeneous and companies, irrespective of size and area of operation, need to remain competitive in order to survive and make profits for their owners. Companies need strategies following which competitive advantage can be gained. Environments have a great impact on companies. The strategy is the reaction or response to these external and internal situations. Ansoff et al (1976) state that, amongst other things, responsiveness to the problems is what strategy is all about. The aggressive response to competition, the sublime response to the customers, the firm but fair response to the managers and workers are but a few ingredients of strategy. Minzberg et al (1998) offer another concept of strategy which is that it acts as a mediation force between the organization and the environment. The strategy is the internal and inherent capacity of the organization to meet and face challenges posed by the environment. There are different responses that formulate strategies and they can be divided into three different prescriptive or narrowed down schools of thought. They are the Design, the Planning and the Positioning schools of thought.

Which aspects of McDonald's organisational culture are considered to Dissertation - 1

Which aspects of McDonald's organisational culture are considered to be strong compared to competitors - Dissertation Example Organizational culture is a topic that is well-studied, and it basically means that organizations have a certain set of values and beliefs that are unique to that organization. Because culture needs to be spread, and there must be a method for this method to spread, this is a topic of consideration and is the focus of this paper. In particular, a vision is something that permeates organizations and, if this vision is positive and committed to by the employees of the company, the vision can make the organization great. This vision thus guides the organization, and underpins the culture. Another variable is that of leadership, as leadership has a great effect on organizational culture. Toxic leaders may lead to toxic work environments, so the organizational culture would be adversely affected. Conversely, effective leaders may lead to effective teams, and this would positively affect the organizational culture. The different kinds of leaders, and how these leaders operate, is another f ocus of this paper. Lastly, since McDonald’s is a multinational corporation, the concept of cultural distance must be touched upon. This is another focus. The results sections will extrapolate the data that was found on McDonald’s and relate this data to the information presented in the literature review. Hence, it can be shown why McDonald’s is the dominant player in the fast food market around the world. The literature review is divided into four sections – literature regarding organizational culture in general, followed by literature regarding vision, literature regarding leadership, and literature regarding cultural distance. The research section is next, and describes the kind of research undertaken, which is secondary research, and how the particular topic was researched. Next comes the results, which are tied into the literature found in the literature review. A conclusion tying it all together concludes the paper. Literature Review The Meaning of Organizational Culture Organizational culture is â€Å"the coding of values and deeply-held beliefs that mold an organization's decision patterns, guide its actions, and drive individual behavior† (Dauphinais & Price, 1998, p. 190). An organizational culture is made up of patterns of belief that are rooted in the values, norms and informal activities of the organization (Ivancevich et al., 2008, p. 503). Both members and outsiders are cognizant of a particular organization’s culture, as the organization makes its organizational culture visible (Dauphinais & Price, 1998, p. 190). At the same time, because it is comprised of beliefs, values and attitudes, all intangible qualities, it is subtle and invisible. The culture may be either beneficial or destructive. If based upon a positive vision, which is discussed below, the cultural organization is beneficial to the organization. Alternatively, if the belief system upon which the organizational culture is based is flawed, and does not fit the vision, then it can be destructive and will drive the organization on to mediocrity, not greatness. Moreover, the organizational culture is often driven by the bottom up, as opposed to top down, according to Dauphinais & Price, as the ways that the broad masses of the organization behave dictates the culture of the organization. Therefore, the organizational culture may be created by rewards, measures and â€Å"carefully structured people practices† Vision as a Part of Organizational Culture Part of the organizational culture is the vision that permeates throughout the organization, especially if the organization is strong and is able to have a shared vision. According to Senge (1990), a shared vision is vital for a successful company and should be one of the top priorities. The company’s vision is one to which the people of the organization must commit themselves. Yet, the successful company also realizes that there are thousands of individual vis ions for the companies, or, in the case of McDonald’s, millions of different visions, as each employee may have their